Full text of "Det Kongelige Danske videnskabernes selskabs skrifter"

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DET KONGELIGE DANSKE

YIDENSKABERNES SELSKABS SKRIFTER

SYVENDE RÆKKE

NATÏÏRVIEENSKABELI& 0& MATÏÏEMATISK AFDELIN&

OTTENDE BIND

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KØBENHAVN

BIANCO LUMOS BOGTRYKKERI
1911

INDHOLD

Side.
Fortegnelse over Selskabets Medlemmer Marts 1911 '. V

1. RauilkiiiT. ( . : Livsformen hos Planter paa ny Jord 1 — 70

2. (iraill. Bille: Undersøgelser over de i forskellige Plantedele indeholdte Kalksalte 71- IIS

3. Sulimidt. Jdlis.! Ferskvandsaalenes (Anguilla) Udl)redning i Verden. I. Det atlantiske Ocean

og tilgrænsende Omraader. En bio-geografisk Studie. Med 1 Kort 119— 178

4. Tliorkclsson. Thorkell: The Hot Springs of Iceland. With 13 Plates 179-264

5. Jlingei'seil, Hector F. E.: Ichthyotomical Contributions. II. The structure of the Aulostomidæ,

Syngnathidæ and Solenostomidæ 265—364

6. Juel, C. : Om simple cykliske Kurver 365- 390

^065

FORTEGNELSE

ÜVEK

DET KONGELICE DANSKE VIDENSKABERNES SELSKABS JIEDLESUIEB

Marts 191 1

Protektor :
Hans Majestæt Kongen.

Præsident:

Vilh. Thomsen.

Formand for den hist.-fllos. Klasse: L. F. A. Wimnier.
Formand for den naturv.-math. Klasse : S. M. Jørgensen.

Sekretær: H. G. Zenthen.
Redaktor: .]. L. Heiberg.
Kasserer: W- L. Johannsen.

Kasse-Kommissionen.
P. E. Holm. J. P. Gram. H. Høffding. O. T- Christensen.

Revisorer.

H. Valentiner. Martin Knudsen.

Kommissionen for Registrering af litterære Kilder til dansk

Historie i Udlandet.
Joh. Steenstrup. J. A. Fridericia. H. O. Lange.

Udvalg for den internationale Katalog over naturvidenskabelige Arbejder.

H. G. Zeuthen. S. M. Jørgensen. C. Christiansen.

Fr. V. A. Meinert. L. Kolderup Rosenvinge.

Medlemmer af det staaende Udvalg for den internationale Association af Akademier.
H. G. Zeuthen. J. L. Heiberg.

Indenlandske Medlemmer.

Holm, Peter Edvard, Dr. phil., fh. Professor i Historie ved Københavns universitet, Slor-
liors af Danebrog og Danebrogsmand, Kommandør af St. Olafsordenen.

Rørdam, Holger Frederik, Dr. phil. & theo!., Sognepræst i Lyngby, Kommandnr af
Danebrog og Danebrogsmand.

Zeuthen, Hieronymns Georg, Dr. phil. & malh., fli. Professor i Mathematik ved Københavns
universitet og den polytel<nislie Læreanstalt, Kommandør af Danebrog og Dane-
brogsmand, Kommandør af Nordstjernen, Selskabets Sekretær.

Jørgensen, Sofus Mads, Dr. phil., fh. Professor i Kemi ved Københavns Universitet og den
polytekniske Læreanstalt, Kommandør af Danebrog og Danebrogsmand , Formand i
Selskabets naturvidenskabelig-mathematiske Klasse.

Christiansen, Christian, Dr. med., Professor i Fysik ved Københavns universitet og den
polytekniske Læreanstalt, Kommandør af Danebrog og Danebrogsmand.

Krabbe, Harald, Dr. med., fh. Professor i Anatomi ved den Kgl. Veterinær- og Landbohøj-
skole, Kommandør af Danebrog og Dannebrogsmand, Ridder af St. Olafsordenen.

Thomsen, Vilhelm, Ludvig Peter, Dr. phil.. Professor i sammenlignende Sprogvidenskab
ved Københavns Universitet, Storkors af Danebrog og Danebrogsmand, Kommandør
af den preussiske Røde Ørns Orden, dekoreret med Fortjenstmedaillen i Guld
og med den preussiske Orden Pour le Mérite, Selskabets Præsident.

Wimmer, Ludvig Frands Adalbert, Dr. phil. & litt., fh. Professor i de nordiske Sprog
ved Knbenhavns Universitet, Storkors af Danebrog og Danebrogsmand, dekoreret
med Fortjenstmedaillen i Guld, Formand i Selskabets historisk-filosofiske Klasse.

Topsøe, Haldor Frederik Axel, Dr. phil., Direktør for Arbejds- og Fabriktilsynet,
Kommandør af Danebrog og Danebrogsmand, dekoreret med Fortjenstmedaillen
i Guld.

Warming, Johannes Eugenius Bidow, Dr. phil.. Professor i Botanik ved Københavns
Universitet, Kommandør af Danebrog og Danebrogsmand. Kommandør af den stor-
liritaimiske Victoriaorden, Ridder af den brasilianske Roseorden.

VIII

Meinert, Frederik Vilhelm August, Dr. phil., fh. Inspektor ved Universitetets zoologiske
Museum, Ridder af Danebrog og Danebrogsmand.

Goos, August Herman Ferdinand Carl, Dr. jur., Gehejme-Etatsraad, extraord. Assessor
i Højesteret, Storkors af Danebrog og Danebrogsmand, dekoreret med Majestæ-
ternes Ouldbryilups-Erindringstegn, Storkors af den belgiske Leopoidsorden, Kom-
mandør af den russiske St. Annaorden, Nordstjernen og den italienske Kroneorden.

Steenstrup, Johannes Christopher Hagemann Reinhardt, Dr. jur. & piiii.. Professor
Rostgardianus i nordisk Historie og Antikviteter ved Københavns Universitet,
Kommandør af Danebrog og Danebrogsmand, Kommandør af Nordstjernen,
Ridder af Æreslegionen.

Gertz, Martin Clarentius, Dr. phil.. Professor i klassisk Filologi ved Københavns Univer-
sitet, Kommandør af Danebrog og Danebrogsmand, Kommandør af den italienske
Kroneorden og af Nordstjernen.

Heiberg, Johan Ludvig, Dr. phil., lilt., med. & se, Professor i klassisk Filologi ved Køben-
havns Universitet, Ridder af Danebrog, Selskabets Redaktør.

Høffding, Harald, Dr. phil., jur., se. & litt., Professor i Filosofi ved Københavns Universitet,
Ridder af Danebrog og Danebrogsmand, Kommandør af St. Olafs Ordenen og Nord-
stjernen, Officier de rinstruclion publique.

Kroman, Kristian Frederik Vilhelm, Dr. phil.. Professor i Filosofi ved Københavns
Universitet, Ridder af Danebrog.

Muller, Peter Erasmtis, Dr. phil.. Kammerherre, Hofjægermester, Overførsler for anden
Inspektion , Overinspektør for Sorø Akademis Skove , Kommandør af Danebrog og
Danebrogsmand , dekoreret med Majestæternes Guldbryllups-Erindringstegn , Kom-
mandør af Si. Olafsordenen, af den russiske St. Annaorden, af den spanske Carl HTs
Orden, af den græske Frelserorden og af den preussiske Røde Ørns Orden.

Gram, Jørgen Pedersen, Dr. phil., Formand i Forsikringsraadel, Ridder af Danebrog og

af St. Olafsordenen.
Valentiner, Herman, Dr. phil., Direktør for Forsikringsselskabet «Dan» i København.

Erslev, Kristian Sofus August, Dr. phil.. Professor i Historie ved Københavns universitet,
Ridder af Danebrog og Danebrogsmand.

Fridericia, Jidius Albert, Dr. phil., Professor i Historie ved Københavns universitet.
Ridder af Danebrog.

Christensen, Odin Tidemand, Dr. phil.. Professor i Kemi ved den kgl. Veterinær- og
Landbohøjskole, Ridder af Danebrog og Danebrogsmand, Ridder af St. Olafsordenen.

BodS, Johan Ei'ik Vesti , Dr. phil., Professor i Zoologi ved den kgl. Veterinær- og
Landbohøjskole, Ridder af Danebrog og St. Olafsordenen.

Petersen, Otto Georg, Dr. phil., Professor i Botanik ved den kgl. Veterinær- og Landbo-
højskole, Ridder af Danebrog.

Prytz, Peter Kristian, Professor i Fysik ved den polytekniske Læreanstalt, Ridder af
Danebrog.

Salomonsen, Carl Julius, Dr. med. & se, Professor i Pathologi ved Københavns Universitet,
Kommandør af Danebrog og Danebrogsmand, Kommandør af den preussiske Krone-
orden, af den russiske St. Stanislausorden og af den svenske Vasaorden, Ridder
af Nordstjernen og af St. Olafsordenen, Officier de l'instruction publique.

Sørensen, William, Dr. phil.. Privatlærer.

Møller, Hermann, Dr. phil.. Professor i germansk Filologi ved Københavns Universitet,
Ridder af Danebrog.

Peclmle, Carl Frederik, Observator ved Universitetets astronomiske Observatorium, Ridder
af den russiske St. Annaorden.

Jonsson, Finnur, Dr. phil., Professor extraordinarius i nordisk Filologi ved Københavns

Universitet, Ridder af Danebrog.
Midler, Sophus Otto, Dr. phil., Direktør for Nationalmuseets første Afdeling, Ridder af

Danebrog og Danebrogsmand, Ridder af Æreslegionen.

Benjh, Rudolph Sophus, Dr. phil., fh. Docent i Histologi ved Københavns Universitet.

Johannsen, Wilhelm Ludvig, Dr. med.. Professor i Plantefysiologi ved Københavns Uni-
versitet, Ridder af Dannebrog, Selskabets Kasserer.

Jespersen, Jens Otto Harry, Dr. phil.. Professor i engelsk Sprog og Litteratur ved
Københavns Universitet, Ridder af Danebrog.

Nyrop, Kristoffer, Dr. phil.. Professor i romansk Sprog og Litteratur ved Københavns
Universitet , Ridder af Danebrog og Danebrogsmand , Officier de l'instruction
publique, Ridder af den italienske Kroneorden og af Æreslegionen, dekoreret
med rumænsk Fortjenstmedaille i Guld.

Bang, Bernhard Laurits Frederik, Dr. med., Veterinærfysikus, Professor i Veterinær-
Lægevidenskab ved den kgl. Veterinær- og Landbohøjskole ved København, Kom-
mandør af Danebrog og Danebrogsmand, Kommandør af Nordstjernen, Kommandør
af St. Olafsordenen.

Juel, CJiristian Sophus, Dr. phil.. Professor i Mathematik ved den polytekniske Læreanstalt
i København.

Buhl, Frantz Peter William, Dr. pliil. & theol., Professor i semitisk-orientalsk Filologi
ved Københavns Universitet, Ridder af Danebrog og Danebrogsmand, Ridder af
Nordstjernen og af Kongeriget Sachsens Civil Fortjeneste Orden.

Kålimd, Peter Erasmus Kristian, Dr. phil., Ribliotekar ved den Arnamagnæanske
Haandskriftsamling paa Universitetsbiblioteket i København, Ridder af Danebrog.

Rosenvinge, Janus Laurits Andreas Kolderup, Dr. phil., Docent i Botanik ved Københavns

Universitet.
Troels-Lund, Troels Frederik, Dr. phil.. Professor, Ordens-Historiograf, Storkors af

Danebrog og Danebrogsmand, Ridder af den græske Frelserorden.

Dreyer, Johan Ludvig Fhnil, Dr. phil.. Director of the Armagh Observatory, Irland, Ridder
af Danebrog.

Jungersen, Hector Frederik Estrup, Dr. phil. & se, Professor i Zoologi ved Københavns
Universitet, Ridder af Danebrog.

Levinsen, Georg Marius Reinald, Inspektor ved det zoologiske Museum i København,
Ridder af Danebrog.

Lehmann, Alfred Georg Ludvig, Dr. phil., Professor i experimental Psykologi ved Køben-
havns Universitet.

Rubin, Marcus, Generaldirektør for Skattevæsenet, Historiker, Kommandør af Danebrog og
Danebrogsmand, Storkomtur af den meklenburgske Grif-Orden, Kommandør af den
russiske St. Stanilausorden.

Raunkiær, Christen, Mag. se. Docent i Botanik ved Københavns Universitet.

Steenstrup, Knud Johannes Vogelius, Dr. phil.. Geolog, Ridder af Danebrog.

Drachmann, Anders Bjørn, Dr. phil.. Professor i klassisk Filologi ved Københavns

Universitet.
Hude, Karl, Dr. phil.. Rektor ved Frederiksborg lærde Skole.

Christensen, Anders Christian, Professor i Kemi ved den farmaceutiske Læreanstalt i

København.
Henriques, Valdemar, Dr. med.. Professor i Dyrefysiologi ved den kgl. Veterinær- og

Landbohøjskole ved København.
Jensen, Carl Oluf, Dr. med., Professor i almindelig Pathologi og pathologisk Anatomi ved

den kgl. Veterinær- og Landbohøjskole ved København, Ridder af Danebrog, af

St. Olafsordenen og af Nordstjerneordenen.
Ussing, Niels Viggo, Dr. phil., Professor i Mineralogi ved Københavns Universitet, Ridder

af Danebrog.

Pedersen, HoU/er, Dr. phil., Professor ekstr. i slavisk Filologi og sammenlignende Sprog-
videnskab ved Københavns Universitet.

Lange, Hans Ostenfeldt, Overbibliotekar ved det kongelige Bibliotek i København, Ridder
af Danebrog og St. Olafsordenen.

Sørensen, Søren Peter Lauritz, Dr. phil., Professor, Forstander for Carlsberg-Labora-
toriets kemiske Afdeling, København.

Olrik, Axel, Dr. phil., Docent i nordiske Folkeminder ved Københavns Universitet, For-
stander for Dansk Folkemindesamling.

Jensen, Johan Lndvig William Valdemar, Telefoningeniør, Ridder af Danebrog.

Andersen, Dines, Dr. phil., Professor i indisk-østerlandsk Filologi ved Københavns Uni-
versitet.

Knudsen, Martin, Docent i Fysik ved Københavns Universitet.

Thoroddsen, Thorvaldur, Dr. phil.. Professor, Geolog, Ridder af Danebrog.

Olsen, Bjørn Magnusson, Dr. phil.. Professor, fh. Rektor ved Reykjavik lærde Skole,
Ridder af Danebrog og Danebrogsmand.

Madsen, Thorvald Johannes Marins, Dr. med.. Direktør for Statens Seruminstitut, Ridder
af Danebrog, af den preussiske Røde Ørns Orden og af den svenske Nordstjerne-
orden.

Winge, Adolph Herluf, Viceinspektør ved Københavns Universitets zoologiske Museum

^lAH^'

Udenlandske Medlemmer.

Hooker, Siv Joseph Dalton, M. D., D. C. L., LL.D., fh. Direktør for den Kongelige Botaniske
Have i Kew, The Camp, Sunningdale, Berkshire.

Lord Avehnry, John Lnhhock, D. C. L., LL. D., Præsident for Society of Antiquaries i
London, High Elms Down, Kent.

Malmström, Carl Gustaf, Dr. pliii., fh. kgl. svensk Rigsarkivar, Stockiiolm.

Retzius, Magnns Gnstav, Dr. med. & phil., fh. Professor i Histologi ved det Karolinske
mediko-kirurgiske Institut i Stockholm.

Conze, Alexander Christian Leopold, Dr. phil.. Professor, Generalsekretær ved Direk-
tionen for del tyske arkæologiske Institut, Berlin.

Meyer, Marie- Paul-Hyacinthe , Medlem af det franske Institut, Direktør for École des
Chartes, Professor i sydeuropæiske Sprog og Litteraturer ved Collège de France,
Paris.

Sievers, Eduard, Dr. phil., Professor i germansk Filologi ved Universitetet i Leipzig.

Wundt, Wilhelm, Dr. phil., Professor i Filosofi ved Universitetet i Leipzig.

Leffler, Gösta Mittag-, Dr. phil., Professor i Mathematik ved Højskolen i Stockholm,
Kommandør af Danebrog.

Nathorst, Alfred Gabriel, Dr. phil.. Professor, Intendant ved Riksmuseets botanisk-palæ-
onlologiske Afdeling i Stockholm.

Darhouæ, Gaston, livsvarig Sekretær ved Académie des Sciences, Professor i højere Geo-
metri ved Faculté des Sciences i Paris.

Sars, Georg Ossian, Professor i Zoologi ved Universitetet i Kristiania.

Tieghem, Philippe van, livsvarig Sekretær ved Académie des Sciences, Professor i Botanik
ved Muséum d'histoire naturelle i Paris.

d' Ancona, Alessandro, Professor i italiensk Litteratur ved Universitetet i Pisa.

Bréal, Michel-Jides-Alfred, Medlem af det franske Institut, Professor i sammenlignende
Sprogvidenskab ved Collège de France, Paris.

Brefeld, Oscar, Dr. phil., Professor i Botanik, Direktør for det botaniske Institut i Breslau.

Xill

Tegner, Esaias Henrik Vilhelm, Ur. phil. & theol., Professor i østerlandske Sprog ved
Universitetet i Lund.

Broçiger, Valdemar Christofer, Professor i Mineralogi og Geologi ved Universitetet i
Kristiania, Ridder af Danebrog.

Hammarsten, Olof, Dr. med. & phil., Professor i medicinsk og fysiologisk Kemi ved Uni-
versitetet i Upsala.

Klein, Felix, Dr. phil., Professor i Mathematik ved Universitetet i Göttingen.

Schwartz, Carl Hertnann Amandus, Dr. phil.. Professor i Mathematik ved Universitetet
i Berlin.

Storm, Johan Frederik Breda, LL.D., Professor i romansk og engelsk Filologi ved
Universitetet i Kristiania.

Comparetti, Domenico, fhv. Professor i Græsk, Firenze.

Schwendener, Simon, Dr. phil.. Professor i Botanik ved universitetet i Berlin.

Söderwall, Knut Frederik, Dr. phil.. Professor i nordiske Sprog ved Universitetet i Lund.

Dörffeld, Wilhelm, Professor, Dr. phil., første Sekretær ved det tyske arkæologiske In-
stitut i Athen.

Pfeffer, Wilhelm, Dr. phil., Professor i Botanik ved Universitetet i Leipzig.

Fries, Theodorus Magnus, Dr. phil., fli. Professor i Botanik ved Universitetet og Direktør
for dets botaniske Have i Upsala.

Wittrock, Veit Brecher, Dr. phil.. Professor Bergianus og Intendant ved Rigsmuseet i
Stockholm.

Backlund, Albei-t Victor, Dr. phil.. Professor i Fysik ved Universitetet i Lund.
Hittorf, Wilhelm, Dr. phil., Professor i Fysik ved Universitetet i Munster.
Lord Rayleigh, John William. Strutt, Dr. phil., D. C. L. , Professor i Fysik ved Royal
Institution, London.

Wilamowitz-Moellendorff, Ulrich von, Dr. phil., Professor i klassisk Filologi ved Uni-
versitetet i Berlin.

Collett, Robert, Professor i Zoologi ved Universitetet i Kristiania.

Duner, Nils Christoffer, Dr. phil.. Professor i Astronomi ved Universitetet i Upsala.

Schmoller, Gustav, Dr. phil.. Historiker, Professor i Statsvidenskaberne ved Universitetet

i Berlin.
Hertwig, Oscar, Dr. med., Professor i sammenlignende Anatomi og Direktør for del

2det anatomisk-biologiske Institut ved Universitetet i Berlin.
Strasburger, Eduard, Dr. phil., Professor i Botanik ved Universitetet i Bonn.

XIV

Fouillée, Alfred, Medlem af det Iranske Institut, fh. Professor i FilosoQ, Paris.
Dastre, Albert- Jnles- Frank, Professor i Fysiologi ved la Faculté des Sciences, Paris.

Picard, Charles-Emile, Medlem af det franske Institut, Professor i højere Algebra

ved la Faculté des Sciences, Paris.
Poincaré, Henri, Medlem af det franske Institut, Professor i mathematisk Astronomi ved

la Faculté des Sciences, Paris.
Ehrlich, Paul, Dr. med., Direktør for det kgl. preussiske Institut for experimentel Therapi

i Frankfurt a. M., Kommandør af Danebrog.
Helmert, Friedrich Robert, Dr. phil. , Professor ved Universitetet i Berlin, Direktør for

det geodætiske Institut og den internationale Gradmaalings Bureau i Potsdam,

Kommandør af Danebrog.
Henry, Louis, Professor i Kemi ved Universitetet i Louvain.

Treub, Melchior, Dr. phil., fh. Bestyrer af den botaniske Have i Buitenzorg ved Batavia.
Vries, Hugo de, Dr. phil., Professor i Botanik ved Universitetet i Amsterdam.
Pettersson, Otto, Dr. phil.. Professor i Kemi ved Stockholms Højskole, Kommandør af Danebrog.

Brugmann, Friedrich Karl, Dr. phil., Professor i indo-germansk Filologi ved Universi-
tetet i Leipzig.

Engler, Adolph, Dr. phil., Professor i Botanik ved Universitetet i Berlin.

Goebel, Karl, Dr. phil., Professor i Botanik ved Universitetet i München.

Ramsay, Sir William, Professor i Kemi ved University College i London.

Hasselberg, Klas Bernhard, Professor, Fysiker ved Vetenskapsakademien i Stockholm.

Diels, Hermann, Dr. phil.. Professor i klassisk Filologi ved Universitetet i Berlin.

Gomperz, Theodor, Dr. phil., fh. Professor i klassisk Filologi ved Universitetet i Wien.

Mohn, H, Professor i Meteorologi ved Universitetet i Kristiania.

Pavlov, Ivan Petrovi<; Professor i Fysiologi ved det kejserlige militærmedicinske Akademi
i St. Petersborg.

Rhys Davids, T. W., Professor i Pali og buddhistisk Litteratur ved University College i

London.
Sweet, Henry, Dr. phil., Oxford.
Arrhenius, Svante, Dr. phil.. Professor i Fysik ved Højskolen i Stockholm, Kommandør

af Danebrog.
Kock, Axel, Dr. phil., Professor i nordiske Sprog ved Universitetet i Lund.
Noreen, Adolf Gotthardt, Dr. phil., Professor i de nordiske Sprog ved Universitetet i Upsala.

Torp, Alf, Dr. pliil., Professor i Sanskrit og sammenlignende Sprogvidensitab ved Univer-
sitetet i Kristiania.

Meyer, Eduard, Dr. phil., Professor i Historie ved universitetet i Berlin.

Wellhausen, Jidiiis, Dr. phi!., Professor i semitisk Filologi ved Universitetet i Göltingen.

Hildebrandsson, H. H., Professor i Meteorologi og Geografi ved Universitetet i Upsala,
Kommandør af Danebrog.

Törnebohm, A. E., Dr. phil., Professor, Chef for Sveriges geologiske Undersøgelse i
Stockholm.

Wille, N., Dr. phil., Professor i Botanik ved Universitetet i Kristiania.

Vogt, J. H. L., Professor i Metallurgi ved Universitetet i Kristiania.

Boveri, Theodor, Dr. phil., Professor i Zoologi ved Universitetet i Würzburg.

Siiess, Eduard, Dr. phil., Professor i Geologi ved Universitetet og Præsident for Viden-
skabernes Akademi i Wien.

Wiesner, Jtdms, Dr. phil., Professor i Botanik ved Universitetet i Wien.

Théel, Hjalmar, Dr. phil., Professor, Bestyrer af Rigsmuseets Evertebratafdeling i Stockholm.

Tullherg, Tycho F., Dr. phil., Professor i Zoologi ved Universitetet i Upsala.

Hubert, David, Dr. phil.. Professor i Mathematik ved Universitetet i Göttingen.

Ostwald, Friedrich Wilhelm, Dr. phil., Professor i Kemi ved Universitetet i Leipzig.

Amira, Karl Konrad Ferd. Maria v.. Dr. phil.. Professor i tysk Ret og Retshistorie
ved Universitetet i München.

Monod, Gabriel, Professor, Præsident for den historisk-fllologiske Sektion af Ecole des
Hautes Études i Paris.

Viollet, Paul-Marie, Professor ved École des Chartes , Overbibliothekar ved École de
Droit i Paris.

Widman, Oskar, Dr. phil.. Professor i Kemi ved Universitetet i Upsala.

Dewar, Sir James, Professor i Kemi ved Universitetet i Cambridge.

Noether, Max, Dr. phil., Professor i Mathematik ved Universitetet i Erlangen.

Penck, Albrecht, Dr. phil.. Professor i Geografi ved Universitetet i Berlin.

Segre, Corrado, Dr. phil.. Professor i højere Geometri ved Universitetet i Turin,

Omont, Henri- A\iguste, Konservator ved Manuskript- Departementet i Bibliothèque Natio-
nale i Paris.

Eriksson, Jakob, Dr. phil.. Professor, Forstander for den plantefysiologiske og landbrugs-
botaniske Afdeling uf Landbwiks-Akademiens Experimentalfalt ved Stockholm.

XVI

Hiortdahl, Thorstein Hallager, Dr. phil., Professor i Kemi ved universitetet i Kristiania.
Tigerstedt, Robert, Dr., Professor i Fysiologi ved Universitetet i Helsingfors.
Fischer, Emil, Dr. phil., Professor i Kemi ved Universitetet i Berlin.
Langley. J. N., Dr., Professor i Fysiologi ved Universitetet i Cambridge (England).
Schuck, J. Henrik E., Dr. phil.. Professor i Æsthetik samt Lilleratur- og Kunsthistorie
ved Universitetet i Upsala.

Tarunger, Absalon, Dr. jur.. Professor i Retsvidenskab ved Universitetet i Kristiania.
Lavisse, Ernest, Professor i moderne Historie, Direktør for École normale supérieure,

Medlem af Académie Française, Paris.
Leo, Friedrich, Dr. phil., Professor i klassisk Filologi ved Universitetet i Göttingen.
Vinogradoff, Paul, Corpus Professor i Retsvidenskab ved Universitetet i Oxford.
Dreyer, Georges, Dr. med. Professor i Pathologi ved Universitetet i Oxford.
Kossél, Albrecht, Dr. med.. Professor i Fysiologi ved Universitetet i Heidelberg.
Montelius, Oscar, Dr. phil.. Professor, Riksantiquarie, Stockholm, Kommandør af Danebrog.
Cederschiöld, Gustaf, Dr. phil.. Professor i nordiske Sprog ved Göteborgs Højskole.
Erman, Adolf, Dr. phil.. Professor i Ægyptologie ved Universitetet og Direktør for det

Ægyptiske Museum i Berlin.

Saussure, Ferdinand de. Professor i Sanskrit og sammenlignende Sprogvidenskab ved
Universitetet i Geneve.

Geikie, Sir Archibald, Geolog og Mineralog, Præsident for Royal Society i London.
Voigt, Woldemar, Dr. phil.. Professor i Fysik ved Universitetet og Bestyrer af det fysiske
Institut i Göttingen.

LIVSFORMEN

HOS

PLANTER PAA NY JORD

C. RAUNKLER

D. Kgl. Danske Vidensk. Sf.i.sk. Skhifteu, 7. Række, natiirvidensk. og mathem. Afd. VIII. 1

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KØBENHAVN

BIANCO LUNOS BOGTRYKKERI
1909

INDLEDNING.

11 ovedopgaven for min Rejse til Vestindien i 1905 — 1906 var den: at faa
Lejlighed til at bestemme Livsformen hos de enkelte Arter af Blomsterplanter
indenfor et begrænset Omraade i et tropisk Klima, i foreliggende Tilfælde paa de
danske vestindiske Øer, for derved at faa Materiale til Fremstillingen af det bio-
logiske Spektrum for et forholdsvis regnfattigt tropisk Lands Vedkommende. Selv
om jeg haaber senere at faa Lejlighed til at give mere detaillerede Oplysninger om
biologiske Forhold hos en Del af Dansk Vestindiens og St. Domingos Blomsterplanter,
har jeg dog allerede paa en vis Maade givet Hovedresultatet af mine Undersøgelser,
der ganske vist kun fylder en Linie, nemlig det paa Livsformernes Statistik grundede
biologiske Spektrum for St. Thomas og St. Jan, som jeg har meddelt Side 129 i min
Bog „Planterigets Livsformer og deres Betydning for Geografien"; der
er her givet et Udgangspunkt for en sammenlignende Undersøgelse af de forskellige
Tropelandes Planteklima o: Klimaet som Betingelse for en bestemt
Vegetation og udtrykt ved det statistiske Forhold mellem samtlige
Arters Livsform bestemt ved Tilpasningen til at overleve den ugun-
stige Aarstid.

Foruden dette mit Hovedformaal, saa vidt muligt at bestemme Livsformen
hos de enkelte Arter, havde jeg stillet mig forskellige mindre Opgaver, som jeg
agtede at give mig af med, hvis Tid og Lejlighed gaves; saaledes blandt andre en
Undersøgelse af Naturforholdene og Vegetationen paa de Alluvialdannelser, som hist
og her findes ved de danske vestindiske Øers Kyster; min Hensigt hermed var
navnlig den, at faa et Grundlag for en sammenlignende Undersøgelse af den Vege-
tation, som findes paa væsentlig samme Bund men i forskellige Klimater,
f. Eks. i Dansk Vestindien og i Danmark, især for derigennem at se, i hvilken Grad
Klimaet, ogsaa indenfor et saa specielt Omraade som de alluviale Slranddannelsers
Formationer, giver sig Udslag i Vegetationens biologiske Spektrum.

Alluviale Stranddannelser findes jo i alle Klimater og kan være af forskellig
Beskaffenhed. Der er ganske vist ikke altid skarpe Grænser mellem de forskellige
Stranddannelser, men i Almindelighed kan man dog skelne mellem de af grovere
uorganiske Bestanddele (Sand, Grus) sammensatte Aflejringer og de Aflejringer, som
bestaar af finere Bestanddele (Ler, Slam, osv.); de første findes som bekendt især
paa ubeskyttet Kyst, de sidste paa beskyttet Kyst; de to Lokaliteters Vegetation er

derfor ikke alene betinget af Jordbundens forskellige Beskaffenhed men ogsaa delvis
af Læforholdene. Til disse to Stranddannelser, Sand- og Lerslrand, kan der føjes
en tredie, for en væsentlig Del af organisk Materiale dannet Bund, der imidlertid
kun i ringe Grad er repræsenteret i Dansk Vestindien.

Hvor der er en, selv kun smal, lav Strand mellem det højere Lands Fod og
Havet, findes langs Kj'sterne af vore vestindiske Øer i Regelen mere eller mindre
udstrakte Sanddannelser, navnlig i Bunden af de aabne Bugter; overalt bestaar
Sandet væsentlig af „Koralsand", som dog langt fra alene hidrører fra Koraller,
men tillige stammer fra andre Dyrs Skaller og fra Kalkalger; paa nogle Steder er
Koralsandet mere eller mindre blandet med Sand, der er dannet ved Smuldring af
Klippernes Bjærgarter, og som dels dannes paa Stranden selv, hvor der er Klippe-
kyst, dels i Bæklejerne, „Gut'erne, hvorfra det af Regntidens stride Bjærgbække
føres ud i Havet. Paa nogle Steder, hvor der kun er en smal, faa Meter bred
Strand mellem Havet og Klippens Fod, har man Lejlighed til at se alle Overgange
mellem det endelige Produkt, det mere eller mindre fine Sand, og det Materiale,
fra hvilkel Sandet stammer; saaledes f. Eks. i den lille Popilleaus Bay paa St. Jan.

Paa andre Steder er den inderste, af hidført Materiale mere eller mindre op-
fyldte Del af en Bugt bleven delvis adskilt fra Havet, idet Havet har dannet en
Sandvold tværs over Bugten, hvorved der indenfor er fremkommet en større eller
mindre Lagune med roligere Vand, i Regelen med en frodig Mangrove-Vegetation i
Randen. Paa andre Steder igen er en saadan Lagune bleven helt adskilt fra Havet
som en lavvandet Sø, der i Dansk Vestindien i Regelen bliver kaldt „Salt Pond"
eller „Salt Panne"; ogsaa blot .,Pond" eller „Panne"; en saadan „Pond" kan endelig
blive helt opfyldt dels af nedskyllet Materiale dels af ved Højvande indskyllet Ma-
teriale og derved tørlagt, saa at den kun undtagelsesvis, i Regntider og Stormflods-
tider, sættes under Vand.

Denne Udviklingsgang er i det væsentlige allerede skildret af Ørsted ' og
Eggers"; men da jeg har haft Lejlighed til at studere disse Forhold paa en Række
Punkter, vil jeg som Indledning til Skildringen af Sandy Point og Krauses Lagune
give en kort Beskrivelse af de forskellige Udviklingstrin paa den Maade, at jeg be-
skriver Forholdene som de nu er paa bestemte, navngivne Lokaliteter; jeg mener,
at dette kan have Betydning som Udgangspunkt og Støttepunkt for fremtidige Under-
søgelser over Arten og Hurtigheden af de Forandringei-, som foregaar og i Fremtiden
vil foregaa ved de danske vestindiske Øers Kyster; ved mine Undersøgelser over
Forholdene ved Krauses Lagune og de store Forandringer, som her er foregaaet i
nyeste Tid, har jeg selv stærkt følt Savnet af en mere detailleret Skildring af, hvor-
ledes Forholdene her var, før disse Forandringer fandt Sted.

Nogen indgaaende Skildring af Vegetationsformationerne skal jeg ikke her

' ØRSTED , A. S. , Dansli Vestindien i physisk-geographisli og naturhistorisk Henseende. Bergsoe,
Den danske Stats Statistik. 4. Bd. Kjøbenhavn 1849.

'-' Eggers, H. F. A., Naturen paa de dansk-vestindiske Øer. Tidsskrift for populære Fremstillinger
af Naturvidenskaben. S'e Række, 5'e Bind. Kjøbenhavn 1878.

koninie ind paa, men kun nævne de Formationer, som findes paa de enkelte Lo-
kaliteter. Paa de alluviale Stranddannelser i Dansk Vestindien findes fire Hoved-
Formationer, nemlig paa udsat Kyst, yderst: Pescaprae-Formationen, og inden-
for denne: Coccoloba-Forma-
t ionen, og, paa beskyttet Kyst,
yderst : M a n g r o v e - F o r m a t i o -
n e n og , indenfor denne og paa
højere Bund, Conocarpus-For-
mationen; de tre først nævnte
Formationer er allerede omtalte af
Warming' og Borgesen"; ved den
fjerde, Conocarpus-Formatio-
nen ', forstaar jeg den Bevoksning,
som findes paa den højere og mere
tørre Lagunebund indenfor Man-
grove-Formationen og af hvilken
Conocarpus erectus idetmindste ofte
danner en meget væsentlig Bestand-
del navnlig i Formationens yderste,
laveste Facies nærmest ved Man-
groveformationen.

Kun paa faa fremspringende
Punkter af Kysten gaar Havet
umiddelbart ind mod den faststaa-
ende Klippe; derimod dannes Stran-
den paa mange Steder alene af store,
nedstyrtede Klippemasser; her kan
man enten slet ikke komme frem
langs Stranden, idet Bølgerne med
Voldsomhed kastes ind i Mellem-
rummene mellem Klippeblokkene
(Fig. 3), eller man kan kun komme
frem med stort Besvær, idet man
maa springe fra den ene Klippe-
blok til den anden, idelig besværet
af det tætte, ofte tornede Krat, som
fra Klippeskraaningen breder sig

' Warming, E., Plantesamfund. Kjøbenhavn 1895.

2 Børgesen, F. og Ove Paulsen, Om Vegetationen paa de dansk-vestindiske Øer. Kjøbenhavn 1898.
' Raunkiær, C, Vegetationsbilleder fra dansk Vestindien ; Krauses Lagune. Bot. Tidsskrift. Bd. 28.
1907—08. Beretning om Foreningens Virksomhed. Side III

Fig. 1.
Fra Coral Bay paa St. Jan (M. 2. 06). Nordsiden af Hopilleaus
Bay set mod Øst; i Baggrunden ,,Orkanluillet " of! Oslenden af
St. .Ian. Billedet viser det yderste fremspringende Hjorne ved Ind-
gangen til Popilleaus Bay, som ligger bagved og tilhøjre for Til-
skueren. Fra d^n stejle Klipjiekysts Fod gaar der et Rev af store
Klippeblokke ud i Havet; langs Klippens Fod er Bunden dækket
afløst Materiale Sten, Grus og Sand - med en mager Vegetation
af Cro/o/i flai'ens , Capparis frondosa . C. cynophatlophora , Randia
acideala, Coinocladia ilici folia idelvis bladlos), I'ictetiaucidcota (blad-
los), Pisonia /'ragrans. Elaeodendron xylocarpiim, Caesalpinia crista,
Canaualia ohtusi/olia og Ipomaca pescaprae. I Spalter paa Klippe-
va'ggeii vokser ; Melocaclus communis. Opuntia tuna, O. curassauica,
Pilocereus lioyenii, Pitcairnia angusfifolia, Kiiptiorbia pctiolaris. Plu-
miiTia alba (bladlos) og Pisonia snhcordata (bladlos). Hele Vege-
tationen stærkt præget af Torhed.

ud over Stranden (Fig. 4). Allerede paa en saadan Kyst, f. Eks. paa Vestsiden af
Løvenlund Bay (Fig. 3) paa Nordsiden af St. Thomas, tiæfTes svage Spor af en
Sandstrand, idet Havet i Storniflodstider hist og her har ført Sandmasser saa højt
op, at de under sædvanlige Forhold ikke naaes af Bølgerne; herved er Fordyhninger
i og mellem Klippeblokkene bleven delvis udfyldte med Sand, hvor der saa har
indfundet sig enkelte Repræsentanter for Pescaprae-Formationen, især Sporo-
bolus Dirginicus og Sesiwium portulacastrum; hist og her ogsaa Ipomaea pescaprae og
faa andre. Naturligvis kan der ogsaa forekomme Arter fra den omgivende Strand-
klippe-Vegetation; men de vedkommer os ikke her, da de ikke findes paa den sæd-
vanlige Sandstrand, hvor Bunden i større Dybde bestaar alene af Strandsand.

Popilleaiis Bay. Som Eksempel paa det sidste Stadium i Udviklingen vil jeg
vælge den forannævnte lille Popilleaus Bay paa Østsiden af Batteri-Halvøen i
Bunden af Coral Bay paa St. Jan. Paa begge Sider af denne Bugt, men navnlig
paa Sydsiden, gaar Bølgerne umiddelbart ind mod den faststaaende Klippekyst,
hvis Nedbrydning er i fuld Gang og hvor Havets Paavirkning har frembragt fan-
tastiske Former; nogle Steder staar endnu enkelte isolerede, ofte ret høje Klippe-
partier i Vandkanten, i Regelen med en forblæst Coccoloba uvifera, et Par Kaktus
og enkelte andre Planter paa Toppen (Pilocereus Royenii, Opuntia tuna, Melocactus
communis, Sporobolus uirginicus, Capparis cijnophallophora og Pictetia aculeata). Skønt
jeg ikke her skal behandle Strandklippe-Vegetationen, mener jeg dog, at det
kan have nogen Interesse at se, hvilke Arter der paa en bestemt og saa begrænset
Lokalitet som Popilleaus Bay findes paa den nederste Del af de stejle, af Havet til
Tider direkte paavirkede Strandklipper og paa og mellem de nedstyrtede Klippe-
masser; foruden Arterne paa den flade af Sand og rullede Sten dannede Strand var

her følgende:

Sporobolus virginicus Elaeodendron xylocarpum

Scleria lithosperma Pictetia aculeata

Hymenocallis caribaea Pithecolobium unguis-cati

Pitcairnia angustifolia Conocarpus erectus

Agave Morrisii Laguncularia racemosa

Coccoloba uvifera Antherylium Rohrii

Pisonia subcordata Bumelia cuneata

Melocactus communis Teconia leucoxylon

Opuntia curassavica Anthacanthus spinosus

tuna Bontia daphnoides

Pilocereus Royenii Plumieria alba

Capparis cynophallophora Erithalis fruticosa

frondosa Randia aculeata
Melochia tomentosa Vernonia arborescens
Croton flavens
Da det her kun drejer sig om et ganske lille Omraade, nemlig den korte Syd-
side af Popilleaus Bay, er det let at forstaa, at Listen kun omfatter en Brøkdel af

de Arter, som kan træffes paa lignende Lokaliteter. Det er værd at lægge Mærke
til, at mange af de opførte Arter er saadanne, som udgør en væsentlig Bestanddel
af Floraen paa de alluviale Strand-
dannelser.

Ved det yderste, udsatte Hjørne
paa Bugtens Nordside ligger der en
Mængde Sten og Klippeblokke ud
i Vandet ved Strandklippens Fod
(Fig. 1); lidt til Siden herfor bestaar
Stranden af større og mindre, mere
eller mindre rundslidte Sten, Brud-
stj'kker af Koralblokke, Skaller af
Muslinger, Snegle og Søpindsvin, som
i stor Mængde lever langs Kysten.
Naar Bølgerne ruller tilbage fra
Stranden, rasler Stenene mod hver-
andre under øredøvende Larm. Efter-
haanden som man kommer længere
og længere hen mod det inderste,
roligere , fladstrandede Hjørne af
Bugten , bliver Strandens Materiale
mindre og mindre, idet Materialet
sorteres i Overensstemmelse med
Vandbevægelsens Styrke; man passe-
rer alle Stadier fra store Sten, næve-
store Sten, Sten som Hønseæg, som
Dueæg osv. til grovere og finere Grus,
indtil man i det inderste Hjørne af
Bugten har en almindelig Sandstrand.

Paa det Sted, hvor Stenene var
fra en Hasselnøds til en Valnøds
Størrelse, bestemte jeg Tal forholdet
mellem de Sten, som stammede fra
Kystens Klipper, og dem der hidrørte
fra Dyrs Skaller eller Kalkskelet;
jeg talte 10 Hundrede Sten og hvert
Hundrede udtoges som fire i Blinde
tagne Prøver; Besultatet ses i om-
staaende Oversigt, S. 8.

Koralsandet og de rundslidte Fragmenter af Koraller og Skaller paa Stranden
stammer idetmindste for en væsentlig Del fra den lille Bugts eget Dyreliv; dette er
her, som paa de fleste andre Steder i Coral Bay, meget rigt. I en Afstand af

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Fig. 2.

Fra Ostenden af St..Ian'i3. OG). Nordvestsiden af Overhale-
lîujïten i Coral Bay, sel mod N'ordtïsl. Mindre stejl Klippe-
kyst med forholdsvis rig, men stærkt torliedspræget Vegetation.
Nederst i Forf*runden en Roset af Agane Morrisii; derpaa
Pilocereiis Royenii og. ovenfor denne, Plumieria allm (bladlos);
Uengere tilbage en blomstrende Agave. Den øvrige Vegetation
bestod af: Citharexylum cinereum , Bursera simaruba (niesten
bladlos), Erithalis fruticosa , Randia acnleata , Ibatia marifima,
Ipuinaea pescaprac, Lantana involucrata. Antlmcantluis spinosus,
Canai'alia obtusifolia, Rhy iichosia minima, Pithecolobiiim unguis,
Serjania polyphylla , Comocladia ilici folia, Elaeodeiulron xylo-
carpum, Melochia tomentosa, Euphorbia linearis. Crolon ßavens,
C.bvtiilinus. Melocact us communis. Opuntia tuna. O. curassaoica,
Cissampelos Pareira, Callisia repens og nogle Græsser.

Bjærgarter

Kurallei-

Snegle

Muslinger

"/o 73,4 23,3 2,2 1,1

10 — 15 Meler fra Stranden begynder en tæt Bevoksning af store Koraller, navnlig
en kredsformet, indtil over 1 Meter bred Art, som i Form og Udseende meget minder
om en Polyporus gigantens; fra en enkelt Stamme ndgaar i forskellig Højde brede,
flade, lappede Flige, som er graagule, medens de ældre Partier er mere eller mindre
mørkt brune. Endvidere store, brune, Clavaria-lignende Arter, pude- elier kagefor-
mede Mæandriner og flere andre. I og indenfor delte Koralbælte lever en Hærskare
af andre Dyr: Snegle, Muslinger, Søpølser, Svampe og Sværme af flere Arter Sø-
pindsvin; at disse sidsies Skaller ikke er repræsenterede i den foran givne Prøve
af Strandens Smaasten , hidrører fra, al Søpindsvinenes paa Siranden opkastede
tomme Skaller hurtigt føres saa langt op, al de ikke naas af Bølgerne og derfor i
Regelen ikke bliver slaaede itu; saa snart en saadan Skal er bleven kastet ind paa
Stranden og Bølgen gaar tilbage, løber Vandet ud af Skallen, som derved bliver
saa let, at en følgende Bølge, som maatte naa højere op, fører Skallen foran sig
tilligemed andet let Materiale, f. Eks. opskyllede Alger og Blade af Havgræsforma-
tionens Arter; Søpindsvinenes Skaller findes derfor ofte i Mængde i „Tang"-Striben,
hvor de eflerhaanden dækkes af opskyllet eller lilblæsl Sand.

Paa de store Sten paa Siderne af Bugten findes en tæl Vegetation af forskellige
Alger, mellem hvilke der lever en Mængde mindre Dyr; især findes her smukt far-
vede Albuskæl og Chitoner, og pragtfulde Aktinier; og i den lune Tropenat glimter
i Vandet selvlysende Dyr omkap med Genskin af Himlens Stjerner.

Paa Stranden i den inderste Del af Buglen fandtes yderst en svagt udviklet
Pescaprae-Formation af Ipomaea pescaprae, Sesuuium portulacastrum, Sporobolus
virginicus og Canavalia obtusifolia, med enkelte Tournefortia gnaphalodes, og indenfor
denne en smal Coccoloba-For mation blandet med Arter fra de tilgrænsende
Skraaningers Kratvegetalion.

Væsentlig de samme Forhold som i den inderste Del af Popilleaus Bay, nemlig
en forholdsvis smal Sandstrand mellem Havet og det højere Land, findes paa mange
andre Steder paa vore vestindiske Øer; dog er Sandstranden ofte bredere og dens
Pescaprae- og Coccoloba-For mat ion rigere udviklet; saaledes f. Eks. i John

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Fig. X
Vcstkysk'ii al' Lovenlnnil Bay paa NordkysUii af S 1. Thomas (12. 12. 05). Klippekyst: langs SlranclkanUMi ligger
stnrre tii> raiiulie Klippeblokke, mod hvilke Bolgerne til Tider brydes saa voldsoml, at del neileiste liulle af Skraa-
ningens Vegetation \:edes af Skiimsprojt. Vandet presses ofte hojt op mellem Klip))eblokkene e)g medfnrer Sand,
Ii\orved Revner og I'ordyhninger efterhaandeu udfyldes; her imllinder sig saa nogle al Sandstrandens Planter, f. Kks.
Sporobolus itirtjinicus^ som ses nederst tilvenstre paa Billedet.

Flg. 4.
Østkysten af Magens Bay (Great Nordside Bay) paa Nordkysten af St. Thomas [H. 12. 05). Klippekyst med Sten

og Klippeblokke i Strandkanten.
D. K. 1). Vidensk. Selsk. Skr.. 7. Rælike. iiuturvidensk. OU nuitliem. Afd. VIII. I. 2

1^0

Bruce Bay og andre Punkler paa Sydsiden af St. Thomas, og paa Vestenden af
St. Croix. Fig. 7 viser Sandstranden med Pescaprae- og Coccolob a-For ma-
tionerne som de ser ud paa det sidste Sted i Nærheden af Plantagen „the William";
de mørke Linier i Strandkanten er Randen af en Kalksten af ung Alder, dannet af
Sandstrandens Materiale, der er kittet sammen til en fast Stenart; en saadan Kalk-
sten findes paa mange Punkter af Kysten paa St. Croix.

I roligere Bugter, mindre udsatte end den foran skildrede Popilleaus Bay, er
der i Regelen opstaaet en Mangrove-Formation (Fig. 8 — 11) paa den alluviale
Bund i Vandkanten , og denne Vegetation bidrager saa yderligere til , at der i
Tidens Løb dannes en bredere, lav Strand, idet saa vel Slam som nedskyllet or-
ganisk og uorganisk Materiale holdes tilbage og ophobes mellem Mangrovens
System af Støtterødder. Men Mangrove-Formationen er heller ikke her den af
Strandens Formationer, som først er bleven til; visse af Coccoloba-, Cono-
carpus- og Pescaprae-Forma tionens Planter kommer først, navnlig Cono-
carpus erectus og Coccoloba uvifera, der i Forvejen er en Bestanddel af den
Vegetation, som findes paa de Klipper, ved hvis Fod Stranden er dannet; saa snart
der er fremkommet en selv kun ganske smal Strand af nedskyllet Materiale og op-
skyllet Sand og Sten, tager disse to Arter den straks i Besiddelse. Conocarpus
erectus har en Fordel frem for Coccoloba uvifera deri, at den kan gaa nær-
mere til Havet, lige til Vandkanten, og den kan derfor gaa ned paa den allerførste,
lave Stranddannelse. Paa de Steder paa den beskyttede Kyst, hvor Mangroven
endnu ikke har indfundet sig, danner Conocarpus erectus derfor i Regelen
Vegetationens yderste Bræmme langs Havet. Paa den noget højere og mere tørre
Bund indenfor denne Bræmme findes saa ofte en Del Coccoloba uvifera og hist
og her tillige andre af den hajere Sandstrands Arter, f. Eks. Caesalpinia crista,
Sporobolus virginicus, Canavalia obtiisifolia, Ipomaea pescaprae o. a.

Hvis nu Betingelserne paa vedkommende Kyst er saadanne, at Rhizophora kan
trives og den indfinder sig der, forandres Forholdene; efterhaanden fortrænges den
udsatte, solaabne Sandstrands typiske Arter. Man kan se dette f. Eks. i Otters
Creek og Water Creek i Coral Bay paa St. Jan; paa nogle Steder hvor Mangrove-
Bæltet, af Grunde jeg ikke kender, var lavt eller endog afbrudt, fandtes enkelte af
Sandstrandens Arter paa Stranden; men hvor Mangroven dannede en høj og tæt
Bevoksning, var Sandstrandens Planter forsvundne fra det sandede eller stenede
Terræn langs Klippernes Fod og Pladsen optaget af Conocarpus- For mationen s
Arter; højere oppe paa Klipperne voksede Coccoloba. Den solaabne Sandstrands
Planter er Lysplanter, og det er vel nok især den Skygge, som Mangrove- og
Conocarpus-Formationens Fanerofyter giver, der her fordriver Coccoloba-
og Pescaprae-Formationens typiske Repræsentanter.

Paa de fleste Steder er Terrænforholdene jo saadanne, at Bugterne fortsættes
som mere eller mindre udprægede Dalstrøg eller Lavninger op mellem de om-
givende lave Bjærge; i Dalenes Bund findes et stenet Bækleje, „Gut", der, bortset

Fig. 5.

SaiiLlstrancl i Bunden af Magens Bay ((ireat Nordside Bay) paa Nordkysten af St. Thomas, set
mod Øst (12. 0.5). Længst tilhiijre ses Coccoloba-Formationen, her næsten alene dannet af
Coccoloba uvifcra. kun hist og her med lidt Caesalpinia crista (i Forgrunden tilhojre) og enkelte andre
Arter. Coccololiaens nederste Grene hviler paa Sandel og er ofte rodslaaende. Sandstranden udenfor
Coccoloba-Formationen er ganske smal, 4— 7 M. bred, og paa sine Steder naar Bølgerne ofte op lige
til Coccoloba-Formationen. I denne findes hist og her nogle af Pescaprae-Formatiouens Arter {Sporo-
boUis virginicus , Ipomaea pescaprae , Canaualia ohtusi folia), men en selvstændig Pescaprae-Formation
er ikke udviklet her; kun lige i Forgrunden begynder Pescaprae-Formationen at vise sig. her alene
repræsenteret af Sporobolus uinj i nie us med vidt kryl>ende underjordiske Udløbere, hvorfra der med
bestemte Mellemrum skyder Lovbladskud op over Sandet; længere mod Vest faar vi efterhaauden en
normal Pescaprae-Formation (se Fig. (i). Tilhojre for Coccoloba-Formationen findes et ret stort, mere
eller mindre fugtigt, af en Conocarpus-Forma I ion dækket Terræn, dannet af den inderste Del
af Bugten , som ved den Sandrevle, som Coccoloba-Formationen staar paa. i sin Tid er blevet ad-
skilt fra Havet og efterhaauden udfyldt af Sand og andet Materiale dels indskyllet fra Havet dels
nedskyllet fra de oingivende Højder. I Baggrunden, hvor den hvide Sandstrand bojer tilvenstre og
holder op, begynder Østkystens Klippekyst, og fra dette Sted stammer Fig. 4.

fra enkelte Bække paa St. Croix, er ganske tørt den meste Tid af Aaret eller kun
med enkelte Vandpytter i Fordybninger i Klipjiebunden; men i Regntiden bruser
der ned gennem disse „Guf'er rivende Bjærgbække, der fører Materiel af forskellig
Art ud i Bugterne; derved og ved opskyllet Sand fra Havet bliver Stranden i
Bunden af Bugterne efterhaanden langt bredere end langs Bugternes Sider. Hvor
denne Tilvækst foregaar jevnt, idet de nye Sandmasser aflejres i Sammenhæng med
de ældre, er Vegetationsforholdene væsentlig som de foran skildrede; paa udsat
Kyst, hvor Havet kan føre Sandet højere op, og livor den nydannede Bund derfor
er løs og tør, faar vi en Pescaprae- og en Coccoloba-Formation; i de roli-
gere Bugter, derimod, hvor den nydannede Bund er lavere og fugtigere og oftest
tillige dannet af finere Materiale, faar vi, foruden en Mangrove-Formation eller
dog en Laguncularia-Conocarpus-Bræmnie, en Conocarpus-Formation,
der indefter grænser op til Bakkeskraaningernes Kratvegetation.

Paa de mest beskyttede Steder bliver den ny Jord i større eller mindre Grad,
undertiden næsten udelukkende, dannet af Ler og fine Kalkpartikler, idet Havet til
Tider gaar op over disse lave Strækninger medførende Ler- og Kalkslam, hvorved
Bunden langsomt højnes; men paa Grund af, at Regnvandet tillige ofte skyller
grovere Materiale ud over disse Sletter og der i uroligt Vejr desuden kan skylles
Sand ind fra Havet, kan Bunden her ofte være ret vekslende baade i Højde og
Beskaffenhed, og det forstaaes, at der ofte bliver Betingelser for en Blanding af
Conocarpu s- For mationens og Coccoloba -j- Pescaprae- For mation ernes
Arter. Ved en af de smaa Bugter, nær Bovoni, i det hidre af Yersey Bay (Fig. 11)
paa St. Thomas, var Foi-holdet følgende:

1) ud i Havet en frodig Mangro ve- Bevoksning;

2) i Strandkantens Slambund et 4 — 5 Meter højt A vice nnia -Bælte med
Laguncularia; Bunden næsten ganske dækket af A vicennia's Aande-
rødder;

3) temmelig fugtig, ganske jevn Lerslette, dels helt bar, dels med Batis
maritima;

4) lidt højere, sandet Bund med Sporobohis virginiciis og enkelte hidivider af
Heliotropiuin ciirassavicum, Acacia Farnesiana, Antheryliiim Rohrii og Rhacoma
crossopetalum ;

5) derpaa xerophil Mikrofanerofyt-Vegetation paa de omgivende lave Højder.

De tre første Facies hører til Mangrove-Formationen. No. 4 er Cono-
carpus-Formationen, men paa dette meget begrænsede Omraade uden Cono-
carpu s, der iøvrigt fandtes i Mængde paa lignende Terræn i Nærheden.

Andre Steder foregaar Tilvæksten ikke stedse i Sammenhæng med det allerede
dannede, idet det tilførte Materiale ikke altid aflejres paa eller langs med Kysten.
Ofte har Havet opkastet en Sandvold tværs over en Bugt enten ved dens Munding,
f. Eks. Krauses Lagune paa St. Croix, eller længere inde, f. Eks. i Magens Bay

l-ij>. (3.
SandsttMiui i Bmuicii i\ï Magens Hav («Irenl Nordsi<le Bay) paa Nordkysten af St. Thomas, hvngere mod VesI
end liilicdet i Kig. n nu-n ligesom dette set mod Ost (12. 05). Stranden er her noget bredere end i Fig. ö. og udenfor
<loee((loha-Forma tonen (lilhojre) findesen udpneget Peseaprae-Forma t ion <Iannet især n^ Spurobolus vir-
ginicus, hvori ses Ipomaea pescaprae , Canaoatia ohtusi folia og. ind mod Coccoloba-Formationen . Euphorbia buxifolia.
Mellem Pescaprae-Formationen og Flodlinien (nederste Hjorne tilvenstre) et ganske smalt vcgetationsløst Bælte med

tunnelgravende Staphyliner.

Fig. 7.
Vestkysten af St. Croix ud for Plantagen ..the William", set mo<l Nord (1. 06). Længst tilhojre: Coceoloha-For-
malionen navnlig dannet ixï Coccoloba iwifera, Hippomane manciiulla og Caesalpinia crista; derefter Peseaprae-
Formationen, hvori ses Sporobolus oirtjinictts og Ipomaea pescaprae , af hvilken sidste et Skud ses at naa na'slen
lige til Havet. Den morkere Linie i Strandkanleii længere tilhage er Manden af en Kalksandsten af nyere Opr-indelse.

paa St. Thomas og i Great Cruz Bay paa St. Jan. Selv om en saadan Sandvold
til en Tid har været sammenhængende og har helt aflukket Bugten, vil den i visse
Tilfælde senere blive gennembrudt , nemlig hvor der i Regntiden tilføres den af
Sandvolden inddæmmede Del af Bugten saa meget Vand, at det gennembryder
Sandvolden paa et eller flere Steder; der bliver paa denne Maade dannet en La-
gune med roligt Vand; ved nedskyllet Materiale og ved Ler og Kalkslam, som
Havet fører ind i Lagunen, udfyldes denne lidt efter lidt, saa at Bunden tilsidst,
først langs Bredderne senere overalt, højnes saa meget, at den kun paa visse Tider
staar under Vand; man ser i Dansk Vestindien saadanne Laguner paa alle mulige
Trin af Udfyldning og Tørlægning; om denne sidste skyldes Udfyldning alene eller
om den tillige hidrører fra en langsom Hævning af Øerne, ved jeg ikke, men den
relativt betydelige Højde af idetmindste tilsyneladende gammel Lagunebund ved
Krauses Lagune tyder paa en Hævning.

I en stor Mængde Tilfælde, endelig, er den fra Havet ved en Sandvold af-
grænsede Del af en Bugt ganske uden Forbindelse med Havet, fordi der, paa Grund
af Terrænforholdene, ikke i Regntiden tilføres den saa meget Vand, at dette kan
gennembryde Sandvolden; derimod kan, idetmindste for nogles Vedkommende,
Havet til Tider skylle over Sandvolden. De paa denne Maade dannede Strandsøer,
Salt Ponds, udfyldes efterhaanden af nedskyllet Materiale. Nogle af dem er nu saa
lavvandede, at de i Tørtiden er fuldstændig tørlagte, saa at man kan gaa hen over
den flade, lerede, vegetationslose Bund; saaledes f. Eks. en Salt Pond ved Smiths
Bay paa St. Thomas. Da jeg kun har undersøgt Forholdene ved en Brøkdel af de
mange Strandsøer i Dansk Vestindien, ved jeg ikke, hvor vidt det gælder dem alle,
at de kun ved en Sandvold er adskilt fra Havet.

Krauses Lagune og Westend Salt Pond paa Sandy Point, som jeg straks
nærmere skal omtale, repræsenterer henholdsvis den mod Havet aabne, ikke udfyldte
Lagune og Salt Pond-Stadiet; jeg skal derfor her kun omtale et Par Eksempler paa
den helt eller næsten helt udfyldte Lagune.

Great Cruz Bay paa St. Jan.

Denne Bugt fortsættes indefter i et lavt Terræn, som sikkert nok tidligere har
været en Lagune, men som nu er udfyldt saa meget, at Bunden ligger højere end
Havet og er uden Spor af Vand paa nær den laveste Del af et Løb, gennem hvilket
Regnbækkene har Udløb til Havet; saaledes var Forholdet i alt Fald, da jeg i Fe-
bruar 1906 besøgte Stedet. Den opfyldte Lagune er adskilt fra Havet ved en 30 —
50 Meter bred Sandvold med et Bælte af rullede Sten i Strandkanten. Kun et
enkelt Sted, ved det omtalte Løb, fandtes lidt Ipomaea pescaprae\ bortset herfra
bestod den j'derste Vegetation af et tæt Bælte af Coccoloba iwifera; desuden var
Sandvolden bevokset med Acacia Farnesiana , Caesalpinia crista, Canella alba, Cohi-
brina ferruginea, Pithecolobium iinguis-caii, Erithalis frulicosa, Argythamnia candicans,
Stigmaiophyllnin periplocifoliiiin, Solanum racemosum, og, især ned mod Løbet, Lagun-
cularia racemosa.

Fig. 8.
Fra Østendeii al' St. Jan3(2. 06). Ma iigi'ove-For'mat ion langs Østsiden af Külhale-Uugten i Water Creek.

F,g, il.

Fni Ostenden af St. Jan (2. (Xi). Den ytlerslc Hand af M angro vc-Forma I i onen jiaa Nordsiden af Oliers Creek.
I Vandskorpen ses Knipper af Muslinger paa Maiij^rove-Roddernc. Bordeaux Jlill i lia^^^runden.

Af det indenfor Sandvolden liggende Terræn er den Del, som ligger umiddel-
bart indenfor Sandvolden, lavest, og Bunden er her for en meget væsentlig Del
dannet af organisk Materiale, Blade og Kviste, dels fra den paa Stedet voksende,
meget frodige Vegetation dels fra Vegetationen paa de omgivende Højder. Skønt
Bundens Overflade laa en Del over Grundvandet, fandtes der dog her en meget tæt
Bevoksning af Rhizophora mangle, den højeste og frodigste Mangrove-Vegetation,
som jeg overhovedet har set i Dansk Vestindien; den var 9 — 15 Meter høj, med
overordentlige talrige og kraftige Støtterødder (Fig. 10), hvoraf de øverste udgik i
en Højde af c. 9 Meter. Bunden var dækket af et tykt Lag nedfaldne Blade, de
øverste tørre, de nederste mere eller mindre fugtige; mellem disse lidt fugtige Blade
fandtes et rigt Dyreliv; blandt andet fandtes her en Amphipod-Art og tillige en ind-
til c. 4 Ctm. lang, til Tandkarpernes Familie hørende Fisk, som Prof. H. Jungersen
har bestemt som Haplochilus Hartii Boulenger. Naar man rodede op i Løvet, saa
man det sprællende Dyr bevæge sig meget hurtigt, og det var vanskeligt at fange
det, især fordi det hurtigt skjulte sig under Bladene. Da der ikke mellem Løvet
her fandtes Spor af draabeflydende Vand, maa denne Fisk ligesom Amphipoden
antages at være indrettet paa at kunne aande og leve i fugtig Luft.

Indenfor Rhizophora-Bevoksningen, hvor Bunden var lidt højere og mindre
rig paa organiske Bestanddele, fulgte et Bælte af indtil 10 Meter høje Avicennia nitida,
med særdeles talrige, L5 — 30 ctm. lange, undertiden indtil ^'s Meter lange Aande-
rødder. Paa den højere, mere tørre og mere sandede Bund indenfor Avicennia-
Bevoksningen fandtes en ret aaben, men høj og frodig Vegetation af Bucida buceras
(indtil c. 18 M. høj), Antherylium Rohrii, Acacia Farnesiana, Andira jamaicensis,
Melicocca bijuga, Ficus populnea o. fl. a.

Magens Bay (Great Nordside Bay) paa Nordkysten af St. Thomas.

Den mderste Del af denne Bugt er, ligesom i Great Cruz Bay, ved Sandvold
bleven adskilt fra Havet som en Lagune, der i Tidens Løb er bleven udfyldt, saa at
der nu kun findes lidt Vand paa et lille Omraade, hvorigennem Regntids-Bækkene
har Udlob til Havet. Sandvolden er dækket af en tæt Coccoloba-For mation;
nogle Steder gik denne lige ud til Havet, saa at der kun var 1 — 1,6 Meter mellem
Coccoloba-Bevoksningen og den Linie, som naaedes af Bølgerne, der her rullede
opad en jevn Skraaning paa 3 — 5 Meters Bredde; paa dette Sted fandtes ikke Spor
af Pescaprae-Formationen (Fig. 5). Paa de fleste Steder, derimod, var Afstanden
mellem Coccoloba-Formationen og Havet større, dog kun nogle faa Meter, og her
fandtes en smal Pescaprae-Formation (Fig. 6) dannet af de overjordiske ud-
løbende Skud af Ipomaea pescaprae og af de underjordisk vandrende Skud af Sporo-
bolus virginicas; desuden Euphorbia buxifolia, Canavalia obtusifolia og Cenchrus echi-
nalus. Umiddelbart ved den Linie, hvortil Bølgerne naaede, fandtes flere Steder
ganske lave, indtil et Par Mm. høje, af tørt og løst Sand dannede Forhøjninger,
frembragte af smaa Staphyliner, som fandtes i Sandet; altsaa det samme Fæ-
nomen som paa danske Sandstrande, f. Eks. paa Vestkysten af Fanø, hvor gang-

Fig. 10.

Kril (iri'iil Cruz liny paa Vestenden af St. Jan (2. IXi). Fra det Indre af en meget frodig liliiziiphora mangle-

Bevoksning, som stod paa fugtig, men ikke vanddækket Bund.

Fra Østeiideii af St. Thomas (5. 06). Udsigt over Yersey liay Ira et Punkt i Nærheden af Nadir. Hohnenc og don
morkere lïnrmme langs Kysterne er Mangro ve-Formationen. Det hojere Terra-n i Forgrunden er da-kket af

Croton Krat, hvori ses Pilocereus lioyenii og Agave.
1). K l>. Vidensk Selsk. Slir-, 7. Række, naturvidensk. oji mntheni. Afd, VIM. 1. 3

gravende smaa Biller spiller en stor Rolle ved Klitdannelsen, idet de af Billerne
frembragte Smaahøjes Sand tørrer meget hurtigere end Sandet i den omgivende
forholdsvis faste Bund, og hvor det derfor forst og fremmest er disse smaa Højes
Sand, som føres bort af Vinden og tjener til de nye Klitters Vækst.

I Coccoloba-Forniationen fandtes foruden Coccoloba uvifera især Caesalpinia
crista, Dalbergia hecastophyUiim og klattrende Canavalia obtusifolia. Paa Terrænet
indenfor Sandvolden findes jevn Overgang fra vanddækket Bund til høj og ret tør,
mere eller mindre sandet Bund, med en frodig Bevoksning af Conocarpus-For-
mationens Arter.

KRAUSES LAGUNE

Ivrauses Lagune (eller Anguilla Lagune, som den ogsaa kaldes) ligger
paa Sydsiden af St. Croix og er den største Lagune i Dansk Vestindien; den er
dannet af en c. 3 Kilometer bred Bugt adskilt fra Havet ved en Sandrevle, der er
gennembrudt paa et Par Steder, bvor Lagunen saaledes staar i Forbindelse med
Havet. Denne Lagune har ikke alene særlig Interesse paa Grund af sin Størrelse
men tillige derved, at der her i nyeste Tid er foregaaet store Forandringer, idet

Fig. 12.
Krauses Lagune; efter Oxholms Kort over SI. Croix, 1828. De med punkteret Linie begrænsede Pletter i
Lagunen er paa Oxholms Kort betegnede som Skov-(Mangrove-)HoIme , der nu alle er dræbte og enten fjer-
nede, saaledes i den vestlige Del af Lagunen (se Fig. 14). eller, som i Lagunens ostlige Del, endnu tilstede som
dode Stammer (se Fig. 15). Angaaende Tallene se Teksten.

den tidligere frodige Mangrove-Vegetation er bleven ganske tilintetgjort som Følge
af en Orkan i 1899. For at man kan have et Holdepunkt ved Undersøgelser over
Forholdenes Udvikling i Fremtiden, vil jeg her, saa vidt mine Iagttagelser rækker,
give en Skildring af Forholdene som de var, da jeg i Januar og Februar 1906 be-
søgte Stedet. Ved denne Skildring har jeg stærkt følt Savnet af et helt tilforladeligt
Kort, idet Fremstillingen paa Oxholms Kort over St. Croix paa flere Punkter er i
Uoverensstemmelse med de nuværende Forhold og vel aldrig har været fuldt
korrekt, f. Eks. med Hensyn til Udstrækningen af de Mangrove-Holme, der tidligere
laa spredt i Lagunen. Men i Mangel af noget bedre har jeg maattet benytte dette

Kort ved den følgende Fremstilling, og hvad Hovedtrækkene angaar lader dette
sig ogsaa gøre. Saa vel efter dette Kort som efter de korte Beskrivelser, som
Eggers og senere Børgesen har givet, har Lagunen været omkranset af en Man-
grove-Vegetation, og tillige har der ligget en Del Mangrove-Holme ude i Lagunen.
Eggers siger (I.e. S. 20), at Lagunen „er tæt overgroet med Mangrovekrat og er i
F'ærd med at udfyldes"; og Børgesen skriver (1. c. S. 28): „Her har jeg ogsaa set
de mest udstrakte Mangrovebevoxninger. Ved en lille Bæk i den vestlige Del af
Lagunen besøgtes saaledes en udelukkende af Rhizophora dannet Skov .... ret
høj, aldeles skyggefuld Skov, under hvis Løvtag man, saa langt ses kunde, kun saa
Luftrod ved Luftrod". Børgesen giver tillige et Fotografi af Lagunen, set fra det
højere Land; man ser her ikke alene Mangrovebevoksningen langs Bredden men
tillige Mangrove-Holmene ude i Lagunen. Alt dette er nu ganske forandret.

Ude ved Mundingen af den smalle Bugt, hvori Kinghill Gut løber ud, er der
paa Vestsiden (ved 1 paa hosføjede Kort) en Mangrove-Vegetation, og ovenfor denne,
paa det tørre Terræn, en lav mikrofanerofyt Vegetation. Paa det aldeles tilsvarende
Sted paa Østsiden af Bugten (2 i Fig. 12) skæres der bort af den løse, sandede
Bund, og der findes her en stejl, c. l'/i Meter høj Brink; Terrænet øst herfor,
mellem 2, 3 og 9 og nordefter, er dækket af en mikrofanerofyt-nanofanerofyt For-
mation, hvis væsentligste Bestanddel bestaar af Arter af Kaktus, Croton og Acacia;
desuden en Mængde andre Arter, f. Eks. Haematoxylon campechianum.

Paa den lave, smalle, af Sand dannede Halvø, som skiller den vestlige Del af
Krauses Lagune fra Havet, er Vegetationens Sammensætning meget vekslende efter
Bundens Højde. Bunden falder jevnt til begge Sider, navnlig mod Lagunen, des-
uden er Sandrevlens Midtparti af forskellig Højde paa forskellige Steder. Paa til-
svarende Lokaliteter ved vore danske Kyster findes under saadanne Forhold en
Række udprægede Vegelations-Facies, idet Arterne her ordne sig næsten alene efter
Jordbundens af Højden betingede forskellige Fugtighedsgrad; her er nemlig Lys-
forholdene væsentlig de samme overalt, idet Planterne er omtrent af ens Højde,
idetmindste er der ingen, som i fremtrædende Grad skygger over de andre. Ander-
ledes paa den nævnte Lokalitet i Vestindien ved Krauses Lagune. Naturligvis be-
stemmes Arternes Plads ogsaa her af deres Fordringer til Jordbundens Fugtighed;
men da en stor Mængde af Arterne her er træagtige og forholdsvis høje, saa at de
kommer til at skygge over andre, kommer ved Arternes Fordeling Lysforholdene
til at spille en langt større Rolle end paa vore Strande. Hvor Jordbundens Højde
frembyder mange Forskelligheder indenfor korte Strækninger, kommer de større
Arter til idetmindste delvis at fortrænge de mindre fra de Pladser, hvor de ellers
hører hjemme; Fordelingen i Facies bliver følgelig her ikke saa i Øjne faldende
og ikke nær saa fint nuanceret som hos os, hvor Materialet er finere, o: Arternes
Individer mindre og ikke saa forskellige i Størrelse.

Langs Havsiden af Sandrevlen er der saa meget Læ for Passaten, at en Man-
grove-Vegetation kan trives paa den lavvandede Bund langs Kysten endog et godt
Stykke ud i Havet, medens der ikke findes en saadan Mangrove-Vegetation udenfor

den for Passaten udsatte Kyst langs Sandrevlen, der adskiller den østlige Del af
Lagunen fra Havet.

Allerede ved 3 (se Kortet Fig. 12) ses enkelte smaa Mangrove-Holme og enkelte
ganske unge Mangrove-Planter udenfor Kysten ; langs denne findes her en 1 — 2
Meter bred Strandkant af Koralsand , hist og her med Sporobolus nirginicus og
Sesui'ium portiilacaslnini, og paa nogle Steder fandtes her i Vandkanten tillige smaa
Individer af Laguncularia racemosa og Avicennia nitida. Begyndelsen til den Lagun-
cularia-Avicennia-Fac'ies, som findes langs Strandkanten længere ude. Derefter følger,
paa et noget højere Terræn, en faa Meter bred Sporobolus virginicus-F acies med
spredte Heliotropium currassavicum, Balis maritima, Borrichia arborescens, Ipomaea
pescaprae og Canavalia obtusifolia; derpaa en lav Fanerofyt-Vegetation, som paa

Kig. 13.
Havsiden af den Sandrevle, som begrænser Krauses Lagune mod Sydvest, set fra 5 (se Kortet I'ig. 12) mod
Nordvest. Langs Kyslen Laguncularia racemosa og Amcennia nitida med Aanderodder; ude i [Tavet en Man-
grove-Holm, delvis udgaael. (4. 2. 06).

dette Sted for en væsentlig Del var dannet af Mancinil (Hippomane macinilla).
Indenfor dette højere Sandterræn følger en Lavning, hvis Bund dels er lerblandet
Sand dels sandblandet Ler og dækket af en tæt Sporobolus y/rj/zn/cus-Bevoksning;
paa de laveste Steder staar lidt Vand med Kuppia rostellata; langs Bredden et Bælte
af Philoxerus vermicularis. Denne Lavning synes at være en tidligere Fortsættelse
af den med 9 (se Kortet) betegnede Bugt fra Lagunen, og man faar den Tanke, at
Kingshill Gut maaske her engang har haft Udløb i Lagunen; dog har jeg ikke haft
Lejlighed til nærmere at følge Terrænforholdene; det tornede, tildels uigennem-
trængelige Krat lægger i høj Grad Hindringer i Vejen for en saadan Undersøgelse.

Ved 4 (se Kortet) findes langs Kysten et bredt Bælte væsentlig dannet af
Conocarpus erectus; hist og her er Bunden saa lav, at der staar lidt Vand over den;

*.7

andre Sieder er den lidt højere og her med en aahen Vegetation af Balis maritima,
Sesuvium portiilacastnim, Salicornia ambiyua, Heliolropium curassaviciim og Sporobolus
virginicus; paa Lagune-Siden (ved 8) findes store Strækninger af fugtig Bund, dannet
af Koralsand og Kalkslani og bevokset med Salicornia og Balis eller ganske vege-
tationslos.

Ved 5 og 7, i Retning fra Havet og ind mod Lagunen, var Forholdet følgende:

1. Udenfor Kysten, i det lave Vand, en Bhizophora mang le-Fades, dannet af
smaa Mangrove-Holme (Fig. 13) og mange Kimplanter af Bhizophora.

2. Langs Strandkanten en Bræmme af Bhizophora mangle, Avicennia nitida,
Laguncularia racemosa og Conocarpus ereclus, den sidste inderst.

3. Den noget højere Sandvold med Hippomane mancinilla, Dalhergia hecasto-
phyllum , Borrichia arborescens (i stor Mængde), Sporobolus virginicus,
Euphorbia buxifolia, Scaevola Plumieri, Lantana odorata og Balis maritima.

4. Ind mod Lagunen bliver Bunden lavere og fugtigere med en Åvicennia-
Facies med Balis.

5. Batis-Facïes, paa en Bund af vaad Kalkslam, med Salicornia, som paa
nogle Steder har Overvægten over Batis; desuden enkelte Avicennia og
Sesuvium.

(i. Store Strækninger uden Vegetation; Bunden, som væsentlig bestaar af
Kalkslam, er ved at slaa Revner paa Grund af Tørken; enkelte Kimplanter
af Bhizophora.

7. Den lavvandede Lagune. Et Sted skyder et lidt højere Terræn sig ud i
Lagunen med større Buske af Avicennia og Laguncularia.

Ude ved Udløbet ved 6 (se Kortet), endelig, var Forholdet følgende, fra Havet
ind mod Lagunen:

1. Bhizophora mangle og Avicennia nitida i Vandet.

2. Lav Strand med Laguncularia og Batis.

3. Lidt højere Bund med Borrichia arborescens, Conocarpus ereclus og Sporobolus
virginicus.

4. Sporobolus med Batis maritima, Sesuvium porlulacastrum , Philoxerus vermi-
cularis, Capraria biflora og Canavalia obtusifolia.

Derpaa, ud mod Lagunen:

5. Conocarpus erectus-Facles.

6. Laguncularia -j- Avicennia-Facies.

7. Bhizophora-Fac'ies i Vandet.

Bortset fra Kimplanter og fra den svage Mangrove-Bevoksning paa Indersiden
af Sandrevlen, der begrænser Lagunen mod Sydvest, findes i den vestlige Del af
Lagunen hverken levende Mangrove-Bevoksning eller Rester af den gamle, som
Følge af Orkanen 1899 dræbte Mangrove, der tidligere dels omkransede Lagunen
dels laa som Øer ude i denne; den dræbte Mangrove var, efter sigende, bleven
hugget om og benyttet som Brændsel. Langs Nordsiden af Lagunen saas endnu

enkelte Stubbe i Vandet; hist og her saas forøvrigt enkelte ganske unge Kimplanter
af Rhizophora mangle som en første Antydning af en fremtidig Mangrove-Bevoksning.
Indenfor 10 — 11 — 12 (se Kortet) har Orkan-Søen ædt sig ind i det noget højere
Land, der omgiver Lagunen; Grænsen er derfor her skarp, dannet af en ved 10
indtil meterhøj men mod Øst langt lavere Brink. Mellem denne og Vandet i
Lagunen ligger lave, flade, indtil flere Hundrede Meter brede Strækninger, hvis
Bund bestaar af Ler og Sand af vekslende Blanding og som, idetmindste mod Vest,
er ganske vegetationsløse; mod Øst bliver Brinken lavere og lavere og forsvinder
ved 12 næsten ganske; samtidig begynder der at vise sig en lav Vegetation hist og
her paa Strandsletten.

f^i-iT-

■.js^^^- > ^.-^v^'j

»^i^åmf,iamiit^'

Kig. U.
Nordsiden af Krauses Lagune, mellem Punkterne 11 og 12 paa^Kortet Fig. 12', sel mod Ost over den nordlige
Del af Lagunen. 1 Randen af Lagunen ses Stubbe af den i Orkanen Î.S99 dræbte, nu borlhuggede Mangrove-
Bevoksning og desuden ganske imge, levende Individer af Aiiicfnniii nitida og IViizophora mangle. Indenfor
Lagunen ses en vidtstrakt, flad, i Torken revnet Lerslette med Grupper af Balis ntaritinta og Salicorniu am-

bigua. (2. 06).

Mellem Punkterne 11 og 12 (se Kortet Fig. 12) var Forholdet, fra Lagunen og
indefter, følgende (Fig. 14):

1. Lagunen med enkelle Træstubbe i Vandet og enkelte ganske unge Planter
af Åvicennia og Rhizophora; ind mod Land smaa Holme med Balis mari-
tima; den nu vanddækkede Bund ligger aabenbart undertiden tør, thi
Bunden viste et System af Revner, der begrænsede 5— 7-kantede Felter af
5 — 20 Centimeters Diameter.

2. Land; c. 20 M. bred ßaffs-Vegetation, i den yderste Del tæt, indefter aaben,
tilsidst kun ganske enkelte Individer. Hist og her er Batis blandet med
Salicornia ambigiia. I den yderste Rand af Batis-Vegetationen findes ofte

2£

en stoi- Mængde Sesuvium portulacastrum og enkelte ganske unge Individer
af Avicennia nitida. Paa mange Steder er Bunden revnet og danner poly-
gonale Felter.

3. 50 — 80 M. bred, vegetationslos Lerslette, hvis Bund synes at være lidt lavere
end i 2 og uden Revner.

4. Noget højere Terræn, 180—250 M. bredt, med en aaben Bevoksning af
Sporolwlus virginiciis; Bunden ses mellem Planterne; her tillige en stor
Mængde Balis maritima, der paa de laveste Steder er eneherskende. Des-
uden c. meterhøje Buske af Conocarpus eredus, endvidere Evolvulus num-
mularia, Capraria biflora, Lippia nodiflora, Cynodon dactylon, Opuntia tuna,
Sesuuium portulacastrum, Heliolropium curassavicum , Portulaca oleracea og
Salicornia ambiyua. Som man ser en ret broget Blanding af Arter, men
her er endnu ingen eller dog kun ringe Konkurrence. Overladt til sig
selv vil denne Bund sikkert nok efterhaanden blive bevokset med Cono-
carpus-Forniationens Fanerofyter ligesom det næste, under 5 omtalte Terræn.

5. 2 — 4 Meter høj Conocarpus- Vegetation paa en af Sporobolus virginicus dækket
Bund ; desuden nogle andre Arter fra foregaaende Facies f. Eks. Evolvulus
nummularia og Heliolropium curassavicum.

6. Højere Terræn, vistnok gammel, hævet Lagunebund, med xerofilt Krat af
Croton, Acacia osv.

Længere mod Øst, fra 12 og østefter, er der langs Bredden en fanerofyt Vege-
tation, Mangrove -Formationens inderste Facies, Avicennia ^ Laguncularia-Fac\es\
udenfor denne er hele den østlige Del af Lagunen for største Delen oversaaet med
døde Rester af den Bevoksning, som før 1899 har opfyldt store Partier af Lagunen;
tilbage stod nu kun Stammerne med de tykkere Grene, de højeste vistnok kun
4 — 5 Meter høje; de hidrørte alle, saa vidt jeg kunde se, fra Avicennia; jeg saa
idetmindste ingen Stammer med Støtterødder; formodentlig har Bevoksningen dog
ogsaa bestaaet af Rhizophora, men denne liar maaske ikke været saa modstands-
dygtig mod Orkanen som Avicennia.

Ved 13 var Forholdene ude fra Lagunen indefter følgende:

1. Lagunen med død Avicennia; enkelte Individer af ganske unge Rhizophora
og, især ind mod Land, unge Avicennia.

2. Højere, fortrinsvis af Kalkslam dannet Bund med ganske lidt Vand og dels
uden Bevoksning, dels med aaben Bevoksning af Balis samt med enkelte
1 — 3 Meter høje Grupper af Avicennia.

3. Avicennia -{^ LagunculariaFacies med Balis; hist og her vanddækkede eller
meget fugtige Partier uden Vegetation; i den inderste Del, hvor Bunden
er lidt højere, viser Sporobolus sig.

4. Højere, men dog temmelig fugtig, ligesom foregaaende væsentlig af Kalk-
slam dannet Bund med en ret tæt Bevoksning af Sporobolus virginicus; her
mange store Tuer af indtil over IV2 Meter høj Fimbrislylis spadicea; pletvis

Juncellus laevigatas og Bacopa monniera i stor Mængde. Denne Sporobolus-
Bevoksning findes paa en Bund, som andre Steder er dækket af Conocarpus-
Formationens Fanerofyter.

Den paa en Bund af en saadan Beskaffenhed ogsaa andre Steder ofte op-
trædende Bevoksning af Sporobolus er vistnok et Kunstprodukt, fremkommen ved,
at Træer og Buske er huggede bort for Græsningens Skyld. At dette i foreliggende
Tilfælde var saaledes, fremgaar af, at der fandtes en Del Stubbe paa Terrænet og
desuden enkelte store Individer af Mancinil (Hippomane mancinilla).

Paa de højere, mere tørre Partier af Terrænet fandtes en Del flere Arter, især
Sida ciliaris, Stglosanthes hamaius, Evolvulus nummularius, Capraria biflora, Helio-
Iropium curassavicum , Acacia Farnesiana og et Par Græsser. Indenfor dette Terræn
følger det lidt højere, med Sukkerrør dyrkede Land.

Længere mod Øst, hen mod 14, bliver Terrænet mellem Lagunen og det
dyrkede Land ganske smalt; indenfor Auicennia-Laguncularia-Fncins findes her kun
en meget smal Conorarpus-Formation med Hippomane mancinilla, Phichea odoraia
og enkelte andre.

I den østlige Del af Lagunen er Forholdene meget vekslende, idet Stormfloden
har medført store Masser af Sand og Slam, som delvis har opfyldt Lagunen; her
er alle Overgange fra en af lavt Vand dækket Bund til ret høj Bund, navnlig som
smallere eller bredere Tunger, der fra Øst strækker sig ud i Lagunen og som,
idetmindste delvis, er dækket af en lav Fanerofyt-Vegetation af Conocarpus, Pluchea
odorata, Borrichia arborescens, Capraria bi/lora o. a. Paa de vanddækkede Stræk-
ninger findes enten ingen Vegetation eller der ses enkelte ganske unge Individer af
Avicennia og Rhizophora; Avicennia er størst og aabenbart kommen først. Hvor
Terrænet er lidt højere, ikke vanddækket men dog meget fugtigt og blødt, findes
vidtstrakte Bevoksninger af Balis og Salicornia, men ogsaa her er store Flader uden
eller næsten uden Vegetation.

Ved Skildringen af Forholdene langs den lave, brede Sandvold, der begrænser
Lagunen mod Sydøst, vil jeg begynde ude ved Udløbet, ved 18 (se Kortet); ogsaa
her er der ført store Masser af Sand og Slam ind i Lagunen, saa at denne er bleven
saa opfyldt, at store Strækninger ligger tørre; man kan saaledes paa visse Steder
gaa helt ud i den dræbte Avicennia-Skov (Fig. 15). Paa de laveste, vanddækkede
Partier ses her enkelte unge Individer af Avicennia, og, paa det noget højere Terræn,
større og mindre Grupper af Balis, Salicornia og Sesuvium; af de to første gaar,
paa dette Sted, snart den ene snart den anden længst ud paa den lave Bund;
Sesuvium forekommer mest paa et lidt højere Terræn. Det øverste Sandlag var
grønt af blaagrønne Alger.

Terrænet mellem 6 og 18 (se Kortet) har jeg ikke undersøgt; ikke fordi det
er vanskeligt at komme derover, thi Løbet mellem 17 og 18 var næsten ganske til-
sandet, men Tiden tillod ikke en Undersøgelse. Bunden er her dækket af en lav
Fanerofyt-Vegetation, der, saa vidt jeg kunde se fra Punkterne 6 og 18, næppe er
væsentlig forskellig fra Vegetationen paa den Sandrevle, der begrænser Lagunen

D. K. 1). Vidensk. Selsk. Skr., 7. Uække. naturvidensk. og matheiu. Al'd. N'Ul- 1. 4

mod Sydvest. Ved 6 var der en frodig Mangrove-Vegetation, og ved 17 stod der
enkelte smaa Grupper af Rhizophora i det lave Vand udenfor Kysten.

Langs Kysten fra IS og østefter fandtes ikke Spor af Mangrove. Den højere,
med lave Fanerofyter bevoksede Del af Sandvolden er højest og bredest mod Øst,
bliver hen mod 18 lavere og lavere og gaar tilsidst jevnt over i det lave, flade,
mest vegetalionsfattige Terræn mellem 16 og 18; men desuden er der paa forskel-
lige Steder i Sandvolden lavere Partier, saa at Bundens Højde er ret vekslende; i
Overensstemmelse hermed er det snart Corro/ofca- Formationens, snart Conocarpus-
Formationens Arter, som dominerer. Vegetationen er ikke her bleven helt dræbt
under Orkanen; der fandtes, især mellem 18 og 21, mange helt døde Individer men
tillige en Del, som ikke havde mistet alt Liv og som derfor senere havde skudt
friske Skud.

Ved 18 foregaar der i Øjeblikket en Landdannelse udenfor den gamle Strand-
vold, idet der her langs den gamle Kyst er dannet en Række lave, flade Sandvolde,
dels uden Vegetation dels spredt bevokset med Sporobolus nirginicus, Slenotuphriim
americanum , Sesiwium portulacastruiii og enkelte Heliotropiuni ciirassainciim. Nogle
Steder er Sporofco/jis-Rhizomerne bleven blottede: formodentlig har Højvande skyllet
Sandet bort fra dem. Det viste sig her, at de blottede Rhizomspidser atter voksede
ned i Sandet paa samme Maade som Rhizomet hos Carex arenaria og Heleocharis
paluster under lignende Forhold hos os. Mod Øst bliver Nydannelsen smallere og
smallere men samtidig lidt højere, og foruden de allerede nævnte Planter findes
her tillige Borrichia arborescens og smaa Individer af Lagiincularia.

Ved 19 (se Kortet), hvor Nydannelsen var helt ophørt, var Forholdet følgende,
udefra indefter:

1. Langs Kysten en Strimmel med Masser af opskyllede Blade af Cymodocea
og Thalassia.

2. En 3- 4 Meter bred Bevoksning af Sporobolus, Stenotapbrum og Heliotropium
curassavicum, med Kimplanter af Hippomane mancinilki, Laguncularia og
Suriana maritima.

3. En c. 2 Meter bred Bræmme af c. Vi-i Meter høj Laguncularia.

4. En c. 6 Meler bred Strimmel næsten udelukkende bevokset med Sporobolus
og Stenotapbrum.

5. Lavt Krat af Borrichia arborescens med lidt Suriana maritima, Dalbergia
hecastophyllum, Tournefortia gnaphalodes og Ipomaea pescaprae.

6. Et 30 — 35 Meter bredt, lidt højere Terræn især med Laguncularia; desuden
Conocarpus, lidt Coccoloba uvifera, Hippomane mancinilla, Borrichia arbo-
rescens og Ipomaea pescaprae.

7. Dal især med Salicornia og Batis.

8. Højere Terræn, en gammel kratbevokset Strandvold. Derpaa Lagunen med
de fra Øst udskydende, højere, tungeformede Partier, der længst mod Vest
opløses i enkelte øformede Pletter med lavt Krat.

Fig. 15.
D™ (1i';i])Ic a viccnnia-Skov i den »sllige Del af Krauses I.agune, sei mod Nordvest fra Punkt 1(1 paa Korlel
KiK. 12; .Siedet er besternt ved Mount liable, som ses i Baggrunden, og Plantagen Spanisli Town, det hvide
Punkt, som ses foran den ostlige Del af Mount Kagle. I Korgrunden tilhøjre: Salicurnia ainhigua; lilvenstre:
Bads nuirilinic. 1 den dode Skov ses enkelte unge, levende Auicennia-Buske: f. Eks. de morkc Pletter langst

tilhojre. (G. 2. 06).

Fig. 16.
Havsiden af den Sandrevle, som begrænser Krauses I^agune mod Sydost, set mod Nordcjst. Bunflen af I.inie
Tree Bay, fra Punkt 21 paa Kortet Kig. 12. Na>rmest Havel et 2—3 M. bredt Bælte med opskyllede Blade af
Havgræs: derefter en 1— 2 M. bred, lidt hnjere Strimmel hist og her med lidt Sporoboliis t'irginirtta og Ipnmaea
pescaprae; dernæst Swriana /iiarififiia-Krat. Liengere tilbage dannes den yderste Kral-Bra-mme ai^ Conucarpiis
ercctiis, som her gaar nii'sten lige til Ila\-et. (G. 2. tKi).

Paa et enkelt Sted, ved 20 (se Kortet), skærer Havet i Øjeblikket borl al'
Kj'sten, der paa dette Sted staar som en kratbevokset Brink. Ved 21 danner
Sariana maritima paa en længere Strækning den yderste Rand af Krattet (Fig. 16);
Forholdet var her følgende:

1. 2 — 3 Meter bred Strand med opskyllede Blade af Cymodacea og Thalassia.

2. 1 — 2 Meter bred, lidt højere Strimmel med Sporoholus og enkelte Ipomaea
pescaprae.

3. Suriana maritima-Krat.

Fra 21 mod Bunden af Lime Tree Bay bliver Strandvolden højere og mere
tør, og Krattet dannes her især af Lantana odorata, Corchorus hirsutus, Coccoloba
uvifera, Hippomane mancinilla, Conocarpus erectiis og enkelte Scaevola Phimieri.
Krattet gaar næsten lige til Havet, kun adskilt derfra ved en smal Strimmel af
opskyllede Blade af Havgræs. Omtrent i Bunden af Lime Tree Bay, forbi 22 (se
Kortet) , gaar den foran nævnte (Nr. 7 i Oversigten S. 26) , med Salicornia og Batis
bevoksede Dal over i græsklædte, navnlig med Sporobolus og Stenotaphrum bevoksede
Strækninger, som her gaar lige ud til Havet. Paa de højere Partier findes enkelte
Buske og især lav, forkrøblet Krat af Borrichia arborescens.

Jeg har i det foregaaende søgt at give en Fremstilling af Forholdene ved
Krauses Lagune saaledes som de var i 1906; jeg ser vel, at denne Fremstilling
hverken er fuldstændig eller anskuelig; Forholdene er saa indviklede og forskellig-
artede, at det er meget vanskeligt, ja ugørligt, at give en anskuelig Helhedsfrem-
stilling; jeg har derfor ment, at det var bedst at give en detailleret Fremstilling af
Forholdene paa en Række bestemte Steder, og jeg haaber, at de givne Oplysninger
sammenholdt med de vedføjede Fotografier kan tjene som Udgangspunkt ved
Undersøgelser af de Forandringer, der sikkert vil ske med Hensyn til Vegetationens
Udvikling i Fremtiden.

Paa Grund af de store Forandringer, som i den nyeste Tid er foregaaet, er
der neppe noget Sted ved Krauses Lagune, hvor de oprindelige Forhold er helt
uforandrede eller hvor de optrædende Formationers forskellige Facies alle er til
Stede i deres oprindelige Skikkelse; efterfølgende Oversigt over den beskyttede
Kysts Formationer er derfor ikke nogen Fremstilling af Forholdet paa et enkelt
Sted men et Forsøg paa at udrede, i hvilket Forhold de forskellige Facies staar
til hverandre, og hvilke Facies i vore Strandes Vegetation de maa antages at
svare til.

Tidevandsbæltet; Mangrove-Formationen. Benævnelsen Tidevands-
bæltet trænger til en nærmere Forklaring, da det ikke, idetmindste ikke altid,
falder ganske sammen med det Omraade, der ligger mellem lavest Ebbe og højest
Flod; navnlig ikke hvor der, som i Dansk Vestindien, kun er meget ringe Forskel
mellem Ebbe og Flod; her staar Mangrove-Formationen tillige dels paa stedse vand-
dækket Bund dels paa en kun undtagelsesvis vanddækket men stedse fugtig Bund.

Ved Tidevandsbæltet maa derfor forstaas ikke alene Omraadet mellem lavest Ebbe
og højest Flod men tillige dels den stadig vanddækkede, lavvandede Bund dels den
kun undtagelsesvis vanddækkede, men stedse vandmættede eller dog næsten vand-
mættede Saltbund. Som jeg tidligere har nævnt, er, paa Grund af Materialets
grovere Art, Leddelingen ikke saa fint nuanceret som i vore Strandes Formationer;
men hvor Leddelingen er rigest og tydeligst udtalt, kan der dog skelnes mellem tre
■ Facies, nemlig:

Rhizophora-Facies, den yderste, kun uf Rhizophora mangle dannede Facies.
Derefter

Avi cenn ia-Facies i ganske grundt Vand og paa vaad men ikke til Sta-
dighed vanddækket Bund; dannet af Avicennia nitida alene eller sammen med
Rhizophora mangle.

Laguncularia-Facies, den inderste af Mangrove-Formationens Facies, der
i Regelen optræder som en smal Strimmel langs Stranden, og i Almindelighed be-
staar af Lagunciilaria racemosa og Avicennia nitida; indefter støder denne Facies op
til og blandes med de af Conocarpus-Formationens Arter, som gaar længst ud, især
Conocarpus erectus. Hvor denne Fanerofyt-Bevoksning ikke er saa tæt, at den ganske
skygger over Bunden, ses her ofte tillige Chamæfyterne Salicornia ambigua, Batis
maritima og Sesuvium portulacastrum. Jo mere aaben Fanerofyt-Bevoksningen er,
des tættere bliver Chamæfyt-Bevoksningen. Hvor Fanerofyterne er helt eller næsten
helt forsvundne, idet de f. Eks. er huggede bort, faar vi derfor her en mere eller
mindre tæt Chamæfyt-Vegetation, saaledes, som foran omtalt, paa store Strækninger
langs Nordsiden af Krauses Lagune. Denne Vegetation ligner i høj Grad Salicornia-
Vegetationen paa vore Marsk-Kyster, men i Overensstemmelse med den store Forskel
i Klima er Livsformen hos de to Steders Arter ganske forskellig. Det Terræn, som
her er Tale om, den inderste Del af Tidevandsbæltet, hører i Danmarks Klima til
de Lokaliteter, hvis Planter er særligt uheldigt stillede i den ugunstige Aarstid,
Vinteren, og i Overensstemmelse hermed har den eneste Art, som vokser her,
Salicornia herhacea, den bedst beskyttede Livsform, nemlig Therofyternes; anderledes
er Forholdet for dens meget nære Slægtning, Salicornia ambigua, i Vestindien; her
er den omtalte Lokalitet ikke paa nogen Tid af Aaret særlig uheldig for Plante-
væksten, og de optrædende Arters Livsform er i Overensstemmelse hermed en
anden, en mindre beskyttet, nemlig Chamæfyfernes. Bortset fra Livsformen er der
saa godt som ingen Forskel mellem vor Scdicornia herbacea og Vestindiens Sali-
cornia ambigua.

Der er paa Forhaand ingen Grund til at vente, at Grænserne mellem de en-
kelte Facies i en Formation i et bestemt Klima skal falde sammen med visse Facies-
Grænser i den tilsvarende Formation i et helt andel Klima, hvis Arter gennemgaaende
hører til andre Livsformer. Vor Salicornia-Formation findes saaledes vel paa det
samme Terræn som Mangrove-I'ormationen, men de to Formationers ydre Grænse
falder ikke sammen; paa Grund af, at Mangrove-Formationens typiske Arter er

Fanerol'yter, allsaa lorlioldsvis høje Planler, kan de, navnlig hvor der ikke er Ebhe
og Flod, gaa ud paa dybere Vand end vor Salicornia, der under saadanne Forhold
væsentlig kun vokser paa den vaade Bund langs Kysten; hvad den ydre Grænse
angaar, falder vor Salicornia-Formation derfor nærmest sammen med den ydre
Grænse foi Mangrove-Formationens Laguncularia-Facies, der, som foran berørt,
ogsaa i Vestindien bliver til en Salicornia-Facies (eller Batis-Facies), naar Fanero-
fyterne fjernes.

At dømme efter Terræn- og Fugtighedsforholdene falder Mangrove-Formationens
og vor Salicornia-Formations inche Grænse paa det nærmeste sammen. Men sammen-
ligner man den Salicornia ambigua-Vegetation, som ved Krauses Lagune delvis
dækker Bunden, hvor Mangrove-Formationens Fanerofyter er fjernede, med vor
Salicornia-Formation, ser man, at Salicornia ambigua-Vegetationen ved Krauses La-
gune gaar højere op end vor Salicornia-Formation. Dette beror vistnok paa en
Forskel i Konkurrence-Forholdene paa de to Steder; hos os grænser Salicornia-
Formationen indefter op til Glyceria maritima-Formationen ; i Dansk Vestindien
grænser Mangrove-Formationen op til Conocarpus-Formationen, begge under nor-
male Forhold fanerofyte Formationer; men naar Fanerofyterne fjernes, og der i
Stedet for Mangrove-Formationens inderste Facies, Laguncularia-Facies, har udviklet
sig en Chamæfyf-Vegetation af Salicornia ambigua eller af denne og Batis maritima,
kommer denne Vegetation i Regelen til at grænse op til en Sporobolus-Vegetation,
der indtager idetmindste en Del af Conocarpus-Formationens Terræn, naar denne
Formations Fanerofyter er fjernede. Sporobolus virginicus og andre lave Planter,
som findes her, gaar imidlertid ikke saa langt ud som Glyceria maritima hos os;
naar derfor i Vestindien Salicornia ambigua og Batis maritima gaar højere op end
Salicornia herbacea hos os, da kommer delte saaledes formodentlig af, at de har
fri Bane, at de ikke møder en overmægtig Konkurrence før de er komne saa langt
op, at Fugtighedsforholdene alene sætter Grænse for deres videre Fremtrængen.
Hos os, derimod, gaar Glyceria maritima ud paa den Bund, hvor Salicornia her-
bacea endnu meget vel kunde vokse, hvis der ingen Konkurrence fandt Sted, men
hvor den i Konkurrence med Glyceria maritima maa bukke under. Paa Steder,
hvor der ingen Konkurrence er, fordi Glyceria maritima endnu ikke helt har
dækket Bunden, ser man da ogsaa Salicornia maritima gaa langt op paa Glyceria-
Formalionens Terræn.

Conocarpus-Formationens Terræn svarer paa det nærmeste til vore
Strandenge, hvad Formationerne angaar altsaa til Glyceria-Formalionen (maaske
med Undtagelse af dennes yderste Del), Juncus Gerardi-Formalionen og Statice
armeria-Formalionen. Naturligvis gaar Conocarpus-Formationens Arter ikke i lige
Grad ud paa den lavere og fugtigere Bund; paa denne sidste er Conocarpiis erectus
i Regelen dominerende, og her faar vi, som ovenfor omtalt, yderst en Salicornia
+ ßa/is-Vegelation , inderst en S/)orobo/«s -Vegetation, naar Fanerofyterne fjernes.
Det højere Terræn bærer en mere broget Blanding af Arter; her begynder

ogsaa en Del af de xerofile Krats Arter at indfinde sig; men Forholdene er saa
vekslende, at jeg ikke tror, det lønner sig her al forsøge paa at opstille forskel-
lige Facies.

Naar man vil foretage en sammenlignende Undersøgelse af de til hinanden
svarende Formationer i to helt forskellige Klimater, f. Eks. Danmarks og Dansk
Vestindiens, for at se, paa hvilken forskellig Maade de to Omraaders Klima giver
sig Udslag i Planternes Livsform, maa man først søge at udfinde, hvilke Forma-
tioner der svarer til hinanden og som skal sammenlignes; da Vegetationens flori-
stiske Sammensætning er ganske forskellig, kan de optrædende Arter ikke give noget
Holdepunkt i saa Henseende; man maa derfor gaa ud fra en sammenlignende
Undersøgelse af Terrænets Natur og saa sammenligne de Formationer, som findes
paa det i de to Klimater til hinanden svarende Terræn, i foreliggende Tilfælde de
paa beskyttet Kyst optrædende alluviale Stranddannelser, som i større eller mindre
Grad staar under det salte Vands Paa virkning. Som nedenstaaende vist, har jeg
søgt at sammenstille de Formationer, som paa dette Terræn svarer til hinanden,
naar man sammenligner Danmark (Nordby Marsk paa Fanø) med Dansk Vestindien
(Krauses Lagune); og for sidste Steds Vedkommende har jeg taget Hensyn baade
til det normale Forhold og til det Forhold, som indtræder, naar Fanerofyterne er
bleven fjernede og endnu ikke atter er indvandrede.

Krauses Lagune paa St. Croix

Nordby Marsk paa Fanø

Normale Forhold

Hvor Fanerofyterne
er fjernede

ti\

Rhizophora-Facies

Avicennia-Facies

Laguncularia-Facies

Conocarpus erectus, etc.

Borrichia arborescens
Pluchea odorata, etc.

Acacia Farnesiana, etc.

Salicornia ambigua
Batis maritima

Salicornia lierbacea-Formation

Glyceria— Suaeda-Facies )
Glycena -^ Aster-Facies \ p„,.,,,

Juncellus laevigatas Glyceria + Triglochin-FaciesJ

Sporobolus virgini- .Jiincus (ierardi-Form.
eus, etc.

Stenotaphrum, etc. Statice armeria-Form.

Angaaende det sidste Punkt vil jeg tilføje følgende sammenfattende Bemærk-
ninger:

Hvor Mangrove-Formationen og Conocarpus-Forniationen er tilstede i deres
endelige Form, f. Eks. i den sydvestlige Rand af Krauses Lagune, dominerer na-
turligvis Fanerofyterne, og de tilstedeværende Arter af Chamæfyter og andre Livs-
former spiller kun en ganske underordnet Rolle; hvad Chamæfyterne Salicornia
ambigua og Batis maritima angaar, da er deres Plads her begrænset til Mangrove-
Formationens inderste Facies og til den yderste, fortrinsvis af Conocarpus erectus

dannede Del af Conocarpus-Formationen. Hvor derimod, som langs Nordsiden af
den vestlige Halvdel af Krauses Lagune, Fanerofyterne er bleven fjernede, er Sali-
cornia og Batis dominerende og kan paa vide Strækninger danne en mere eller
mindre tæt Vegetation, der dog kun repræsenterer el tidligt Udviklingstrin af den
inderste Del af Mangrove-F"ormationen og den yderste Del af Conocarpus-F'orma-
lionen, et Udviklingstrin', der kun bestaar saa længe disse Formationers Fane-
rofyter endnu ikke er indvandrede.

' I en for nylig trykt Afhandling opfører Dr. Børgesen dette Udviklingstrin som en selvstændig
Formation sideordnet med Mangrove-Formationen og Conocarpns-Formationen. (F. Børgesen, Notes on
the Shore Vegetation of the Danish West Indian Islands. Bot.Tidsskr. Bd. 29. li)09).

SANDY POINT.

Oandy Point (se Kortet Fig. 17) er en af Sand dannet Halvø, som fra det
sydvestlige Hjørne af St. Croix strækker sig c. 3 Kilometer ud i Havel, maalt fra
Nordenden af Westend Salt Pond til
Halvøens Sydspids. Kun ved to
smalle Arme, en længere vestlig og
en kortere østlig, staar den i For-
bindelse med Øens Klippebund, hvor-
fra den paa den øvrige Strækning er
adskilt ved den foran nævnte, lav-
vandede Sø , Westend Salt Pond ;
denne er en tidligere Lagune, der
vel nu under sædvanlige Forhold er

ganske aflukket fra Havet,

men som

dog til Tider skal kunne staa i For-
bindelse med dette, der i Stormtider
skal kunne skylle ind over de smalle
Landstrimler, som skiller Søen fra
Havet mod Øst og Vest. Sandy Point
danner saaledes et vel begrænset Om-
raade, som i særlig Grad egner sig
for Studiet af den Vegetation, som i
Vestindien indfinder sig paa alluviale
Dannelser af denne Art.

Som i saa mange andre lignende
Tilfælde er denne Sand-Halvøes Form
underkastet Forandringer; paa nogle
Steder vokser den ved ny Sandaflej-
ringer langs Kysten, paa andre Steder
skylles der bort af denne; det kan
derfor for fremtidige Undersøgelsers Skyld have nogen Interesse at vide, hvorledes
Forholdene er nu. Desværre mangler vi et nøjagtigt Kort som Udgangspunkt; ved
den efterfølgende Redegørelse for de Undersøgelser, jeg bar foretaget angaaende

Fig. 17.

Sandy Point med Westend Sall I'nnd paa St. Croix;

efter Oxliolms Kort over St. Croix , 1.S2.S. Angaaende Tallene

se Teksten.

D. K. I). Vidensli. Selsk. Slir

. li;i-'U|{e, natui-vi<lensl(. og mathein. ATil. VIII. 1,

Sandy Point og dens Vegetation maa jeg, ligesom ved Krauses Lagune, nøjes med
at benytte en Kopi af Oxholms Kort.

Sandy Point er udelukkende dannet af Sand, „Koralsand", med Undtagelse af
visse Strækninger langs Westend Salt Pond, hvor Sandet er mere eller mindre ler-
blandet; men Halvøen er ikke noget Klitterræn af lignende Art som f. Eks. langs
Jyllands Vestkyst; Sandflugt af nogen Betydning finder ikke Sted, og der er derfor
kun ringe Forskel med Hensyn til Terrænets Højde over Havet paa de forskellige
Steder; Overfladen har vistnok gennemgaaende den Højde, som de af Havet paa
forskellige Tider opkastede Sandmasser har naaet. Halvøens Dannelse skj'ldes for-
modentlig en sydgaaende Slrøm langs Vestkysten af St. Croix og en vestgaaende
Strøm langs Sydkysten; hvor disse to Strømme mødes bundfældes de af Strømmene,
navnlig østfra, hidførte Sandmasser, hvorved Bunden højnes; i Stormtider kaster
saa Havet Sandet ind paa Kysten som lange Sandvolde adskilte ved mere eller
mindre tydelige Lavninger, det Hele afrundet af det tilbagestrømmende Vand og
senere, naar Sandet er bleven tørt, tillige af Vinden. Naar man derfor paa et af
de Steder, hvor den seneste Tilvækst har fundet Sted, gaar fra Stranden indefter,
passerer man en Række brede, flade Volde adskilte ved '/4 — 1 Meter lavere, flade
Dale. Vi har her lignende Overlladeforhold som paa den yderste Strand paa Vest-
kysten af Nordenden af Fanø, hvor 2 — 3 flade Sandrevler idetmindste i Ebbetiden
ligger tørre, med mellemliggende flade Dale, gennem hvilke Flodbølgen strømmer ud
mod Nord; tænker man sig dette Terræn hævet 1 — 2 Meter, viser det lignende Terræn-
forhold som dem der findes f. Eks. her paa Vestsiden af Sydenden af Sandy Point.

Paa Sandy Point er, omeud i meget forskellig Grad, alle de Lokaliteter og
tilsvarende Formationer repræsenterede, som i Dansk Vestindien findes paa de allu-
viale Stranddannelser. Sammenlignet med Forholdene i Danmark svarer Sandj'
Point nærmest til Skallingen, med hvis Flora jeg derfor ogsaa senere vil sammen-
ligne Floraen paa Sandy Point; man vil da faa at se, hvorledes Planternes Livs-
form i forskellige Jordstrøg er bestemt af Klimaet og selv paa saa specielle og be-
grænsede Omraader som de alluviale Stranddannelser er ganske i Overensstemmelse
med vedkommende Klimas almindelige biologiske Spektrum.

Den beskyttede Kyst og dens Vegetationsformationer er indskrænket til den
iøvrigt lange Strækning, paa hvilken Sandy Point grænser op til Westend Salt
Pond, altsaa dennes sydlige og vestlige Bred. Ligesom paa den tilsvarende Lokalitet
paa Indersiden af Skallingen bestaar Bunden her fortrinsvis af Sand, hist og her
mere eller mindre stærkt lerblandet.

Havgræsformatioueii er i Westend Salt Pond kun repræsenteret af Riippia
rostellata.

Tidevandsbæltet, Man)u;roveforiiiationen.

Som omtalt i Afsnittet „Krauses Lagune" forstaar jeg ved Tidevandsbæltet
ikke alene Omraadet mellem lavest Ebbe og højest Flod men desuden baade den
stedse fugtige, men kun undtagelsesvis vanddækkede Bund, og tillige, hvor der enten
ikke findes eller kun er ubetydelig Ebbe og Flod, saadanne Lokaliteter, som stedse

Fig. 1«.

Nor<lfM(U-M :il' Westend Salt Ponil paa St. Croix sot fra 1 paa Kortet Fig. 17 (S. 1. TO). I I-'orsiiiiideii la-t
Sporobolus uirfiiniciis-Bv\oksning med Tra-stubbe; i Vandkanten lave Huske at Laguncuhiria raceinosa (lilhojre)
OK .li'icLwimu itiliila Uüvenstre). Soen er, idelniindste her, meget lavvandet; Sten ses rage op o\er Vaiidlladen.
OR fra Iliijre skyder en delvis toriagt Stra>kning sig ud i Soen. I Baggrunden Krallet paa den smalle I.and-

slrinimel mellem Søen og Havet.

Fig. 19.

P'ra Sydenden af Westend Salt Pond paa St. Croix, ved 10 paa Kortet Fig. 17 (.S. 1. 06). Fra Venstre liljlløjre:
Soen — Skumstribe — smal Sandstrand uden Vegetation — Sesiiviuni porlalacaslmni — Sfsucinm og Jlalis ma-
ritima — Sporobolus Lnr(f[nicus, Lagiincutariu racewosa, Conocarpus erectus — Coccu/o/ja-Formationen.

er dækkede af lavt Vand. Til disse sidste Lokalileter hører Westend Salt Pond
(Fig. 18 — 19), idetmindste for store Strækningers Vedkommende, idet Vandet er
ganske lavt, i hvert Fald langs Bredderne. Den hertil svarende Formation, Man-
grove-Formationen, er imidlertid kun svagt repræsenteret; navnlig mangler denne
Formations yderste, mest karakteristiske Facies, Rhizophora-Facies, idel Rhizophora
mangle ikke findes i Westend Salt Pond, saa vidt jeg har set. Grunden hertil er
neppe Vandets Beskaffenhed; hvor salt dette er, ved jeg ganske vist ikke; dets Ud-
seende og Temperatur indbød ikke til at gøre noget energisk Forsøg paa af afgøre
dette Spørgsmaal ad Smagens Vej; jeg antager, at Mangelen af Rhizojjhora beror
paa, at den overhovedet ikke er bleven ført hertil. Heller ikke nogen Avicennia-
Facies er udviklet; kun Mangrove-Formationens inderste Facies, Lagu neu 1 aria-
Avicennia-Facies, findes paa kortere eller længere Strækninger langs den syd-
lige og vestlige Bred, som her alene kommer i Betragtning; Laguncnlaria racemosa
og Avicennia nitida og i Regelen tillige Conocnrpus erectiis danner her en ganske
smal Bræmme umiddelbart langs Vandkanten. Hvor denne Bræmme ikke var
altfor tæt fandtes en Del Batis maritima og især Sesuuium portulacastrum, navnlig i
den inderste Rand af Bevoksningen. Paa andre Steder, f. Eks. mellem 4 og 6,
mellem 7 og 8 og ved 10 (se Kortet Fig. 17) fandtes den nævnte Laguncularia-
Avicennia-Facies ikke, altsaa i det Hele taget ingen af Mangrove-Formationens
Fanerofyter. Forholdet var her i Regelen det som ses paa Fig. 19:

1. Yderst en smal, 2 — 5 Meter bred, sandet, svagt skraanende Strandbred uden
Vegetation.

2. Derpaa, i Randen af en lidt højere Bund, en oftest ganske smal Bræmme
af Sesuvium, Batis og Philoxerus uermicularis eller alene af Sesuvium, der
her gaar længst ud; denne Sesuvium-Ba ti s-Bevoksning, her den eneste
Antydning af en Mangrove-Formation, gaar indefter over i

3. en ret tæt Sporobolus-Vegetation, der i høj Grad minder om de Bevoks-
ninger af Agrostis alba, som findes hos os paa lignende, mere eller mindre
tor Sandbund, f. Eks. paa den lave Bund paa Indersiden af Svenske Knolde
paa Skallingen.

Nogle Steder er Sporobolus-Bevoksningen kun lidt blandet med andre lave
Planter, især Sesuvium, Philoxerus, Tephrosia cinerea og Canavalia obtusi folia, paa
andre Steder findes mere eller mindre tæt indstrøet lave Individer af forskellige
Fanerofyter især Conocarpus, Avicennia, Laguncnlaria, Borrichia arborescens, Coccoloba
uvifera, Corchorus hirsutus og Ernodea littoralis: en Conocar pus-For mation med
Indblanding af Arter især fra de paa ubeskyttet Kyst forekommende Formationer;
Conocarpus-Formationen grænser jo ogsaa her op til Coccoloba-Formationen paa
den højere liggende Sandbund mellem Westend Salt Pond og Havet. Vi har da
her et Forhold, der ganske svarer til det, der findes ved Nordenden af Fanøs Klit-
terræn, hvor den sandede Veststrands og de lave Klitters Vegetation mødes med og
blandes med Arter fra Formationerne paa den beskyttede Østkyst.

Den ubeskyttede Sandstrand; Pescaprae-Fonnationen.

Ved den efterfølgende Skildring af Sandstranden og dens Vegetation vil jeg
begynde paa Nordvestkysten udfor Nordenden af Westend Salt Pond og derfra følge
Kyslen om paa Sydøstkysten. Nordvestkyslens Sandstrand falder ret stejlt af mod
Havet, og der er her stor Forskel i Højde mellem den Linie, hvortil Bølgerne naar
op og den Linie, hvortil Vandet atter synker. Mellem 2 og 11 (se Kortet) ses i
Strandkanten den ogsaa fra flere andre Steder j)aa St. Croix kendte Kalksandsten,
der stammer fra en nyere Tid, da man har fundet Kulturprodukter i den; den
samme Kalksandsten er meget udbredt langs Bredderne af Westend Salt Pond's
Nordende.

Sandstranden, der indefter begrænses af en tæt, men i Regelen kun 1 — 2 Meter
høj Coccoloba uuifera-Biæmme , er mellem 2 og 11 smal, c. 10 — 15 Meter bred, og
næsten ganske uden Vegetation; kun hist og her findes ind i Kanten af Coccoloba-
Formationen enkelte Sporoholns uirginiciis-Ko\oniev. Henimod 12 (se Kortet) begynder
Sandstranden at blive bredere, og fra 12 til Sydvesthjørnet tiltager den jevnt i
Bredde; samtidig bliver Pescaprae Formationen frodigere og breder sig over hele
Stranden paa nær dennes yderste, yngste mod Havet vendende Del. Ved 12 be-
gynder tillige det tidligere omtalte parallelt med Kysten gaaende System af lave
brede og flade Sandvolde, adskilte ved tilsvarende, kun ^ i — 1 Meter dybe Dale; i
Almindelighed er Forholdet dette, at Sandvoldene har en ganske jevnt alTaldende
Skraaning paa Landsiden, men derimod en mere eller mindre stejl Skraaning paa
den mod Havet vendende Side.

Ved 12, hvor Stranden er c. 25 Meter bred, findes kun en bred, langs Havet
liggende Sandvold og indenfor denne en bred Dal; derpaa det lidt højere Terræn,
paa hvilket det yderste, 1 — 2 Meter høje Coccolobci-Knit staar. Der er her to Facies
i Strandens Pescaprae-Formation; umiddelbart udenfor Coccoloba-Bræmmen kommer
en ca. 15 Meter bred, tæt Bevoksning af Canavalia obtusifolia, mere eller mindre
blandet med Ipomaea pescaprae; derpaa, op paa Indersiden af Strandvolden, en c. 8
Meter bred Bevoksning af Ipomaea pescaprae alene. Efterhaanden som Stranden
sydpaa bliver bredere, findes flere Dale eller Lavninger, ved 13 (se Kortet), hvor
Stranden er 50 Meter bred, saaledes 3, og ved 14 (se Kortet), hvor Stranden er
c. 80 Meter bred, 4 Dale. Med Hensyn til Vegetationen er Forholdet væsentlig ens
ved 13 og 14, og jeg vil derfor begrænse mig til en Skildring af F'orholdet ved 14,
hvor Stranden er bredest.

Der kan her skelnes mellem tre Facies i Pescaprae-Forniationen. Ved Frem-
stillingen af disses Fordeling vil jeg gaa ud fra Dalene; disse optager den største
Del af Terrænet og har den frodigste Vegetation, der herfra strækker sig op over
de mellemliggende flade Volde; jeg begrænser derfor, og for Oversigtens Skyld, de
fire Dale saaledes, at den enkelte Dal regnes fra den øverste Del af den ene Vold
til den øverste Del af den følgende.

1. Den 1ste, yderste, c. 12 Meter brede Dal er ganske vegetationsløs.

2. Den 2den Dal, som er c. 16 Meter bred, har en næsten ren Bevoksning af

Ipomaea pescapra.e (Fig. 20) med meget lange, paa Sandels Overflade
liggende Skud, hvis ældre Parlier efterliaanden ofte dækkes af lilblæst Sand.
Af andre Arter fandtes her kun Euphorbia buxifolia og Cnkile lanceolata.

3. Den tredie, c. 22 Meter brede Dal optages af en meget frodig og tæt, c. '/a
Meler høj Bevoksning af Canavalia obtusifolia, hvori der findes en Del
Ipomaea pescaprae; desuden Euphorbia buxifolia; nogle Steder var Canavalia
næsten ganske dækkel af Cassytha americnna, som her var stærkt rødgul
og i Afstand ganske lignede Cuscuta americana, som jeg iøvrigt ikke saa
paa Sandy Point.

4. Den 4de Dal, endelig, som var c. 30 Meler bred, var ligeledes væsentlig bevokset
med en frodig Canavalia -Vegetation (Fig. 21), navnlig i Dalens yderste

i*W-

^^-^^^''^'^''^^^'^

-^>.»$iS^-

Fig. 2ü.

Fra Vesth.jørnet af Sandy Point paa SI. Croix , ved 14 p.ia Kortet Fig. 17 (24. 1. 06). Pcscaprae-Formalionens

yderste Facies: Pescaprae-Facies, set mod Nord; i Baggrunden Hojderne paa Nordvestlijornet af St. Croix;

foran disse Bugten ved Frederikssted, der ligger ved det inderste Hjørne af Bugten.

Del; i den inderste, mod Krattet grænsende Del var Canavalia obtusifolia
mindre frodig; derimod fandtes her en ret tæt Bevoksning af Sporobolus
virginicus med Cenchrus, Euphorbia buxifolia og lidt Ipomaea pescaprae.
5. Derefter fulgte en ca. 30 Meter bred Overgangsformation, den foregaaende
Facies paa et ældre Udviklingstrin, med en mere eller mindre tæt Bevoks-
ning af l'/j — 3 Meter hojc Individer af Chrysobalanus icaco, Suriana maritima,
Ernodea littoralis, Corchorus hirsutus og Euphorbia linearis.
Ved at gaa et Stykke ind over det kratbevoksede Terræn indenfor Sandstranden
viste det sig, at der ogsaa her fandtes et lignende men ældre System af Sandvolde
og Dale som paa Stranden; desuden saas her det samme Fænomen som i vort

Klitterræn, naar man fra de unge Klitter langs Havet vandrer ind over det ældre
Klitterræn, at Vegetationen paa de ældre Partier har et langt mere magert og tørt
Udseende end Vegetationen paa de yngre Dannelser nærmere Stranden.

Lidt forbi det vestlige Hjørne, ved 15 (se Kortet), danner Kysten en ganske
lille Bugt og her skæres der i Øjeblikket bort af Landet; Kratvegetationen, som
her især bestaar af Coccoloba og Ernodea, gaar paa dette Sted helt ud paa den
yderste Kant af en af Bølgerne undergravet Skrænt. Længere mod Øst, omtrent
ved 16, begynder Landet atter at vokse; herfra og til Sydhjørnet er Stranden dannet
af smallere eller bredere, parallelt med Kysten løbende, lave Sandvolde og mellem-
liggende Dale, som tiltage i Antal hen mod Sydhjørnet samtidig med at Stranden
bliver i tilsvarende Grad bredere.

>««V^

Fig. 21.

Fra Vesthjornet af Sandy Point paa St. Croix, ved 14 paa Kortet Kig. 17 (24. 1. (XS). Overgangen mellem Pes-
caprae-Forniationens Canavalia-Facies og Krattet, der her yder.st bestaar a( Chrysolxilaiitis icaco , Suriana
nuiritima og Ernodea lilluralis. I liaggrnnden Hojdcrne paa NordvesHijiirnet af St. Croix. Se iovrigt Teksten.

Udenfor Sydvestenden af Sandy Point er Havet grundt; der ses her i Vandet
en stor Mængde løsrevne Blade af Havgræs, især Cymodoceayher er en af Pelika-
nernes mest yndede Fiskepladser, og man ser disse Fugle i stor Mængde flyve over
Vandet og hvert Øjeblik styrte sig ned i Havet efter Bytte. Stranden er dækket af
store Masser af „Tang", navnlig Blade af Cymodocea og Thalassia, som Havet skyller
op paa Stranden; noget saadant ses ikke paa Nordveslstranden. En anden Forskel
fra Nordveststranden bestaar deri, at der i Sydveststrandens Vegetation, ved 19 (se
Kortet), kommer et Par nye Arter til; Stranden og dens Vegetation danner her en
Overgang til Forholdet paa Sydøstkysten, som jeg straks skal omtale.

Paa det bredeste Sted, ved 19, er Stranden c. 75 Meter bred og viser et Svslem

af indtil 8 Sandvolde og tilsvarende Dale; paa nogle Steder er der færre, idet to
Volde kan gaa sammen i en. De yderste 3 — 5 Dale og mellemliggende Volde er
ganske uden Vegetation; de er, især nærmest Havet, dækkede af store Masser af
Blade af Havgræs og af opkastede Skaller navnlig af Søpindsvin. Ligesom paa
Nordvestkysten er den yderste Vegetation en Pescaprae-F'acies; derefter følger der
en Cana valia-Facies, hvori der findes en Del andre Arter, nemlig: Ipomaea pes-
cuprae, Cenchnis echinatus, Sporoboliis virginicus, Sesiwium porlulacastrum, Euphorbia
bu.vifolia, Cakile lanceolata og Toiirnefortia gnaphalodes; de første af disse er frodigst
i Dalene; de tre sidste, især Tournefortia gnaphalodes, optræder derimod fortrinsvis
paa Sandvoldene ; Tournefortia findes ikke paa Nordvestkysten men derimod i
Mængde paa Sydøstkysten. Derefter følger en Dal, den inderste, med en tæt og
næsten ren Bevoksning af Sporobolus mrginicus, en Sporobolus-Facies; herfra
skraaner Bunden jevnt op mod det kratbevoksede Terræn. Paa denne Skraaning
voksede foruden en Del Sporobohis især Canavalia obtusifoUa og lidt Ipomaea pes-
caprae; her laa, tildels begravet i Sandet, Vraget af et Skib. Ogsaa her ser man i
den yderste Del af det kratbevoksede Terræn en Afveksling af Volde og Dale.
Krattet, som her er temmelig aabent, bestaar især af Coccoloba uvifera, Chrgsobalanus
icaco, Suriana maritima, Ernodea littoralis, Dodonaea viscosa og Dalhergia hecasto-
phijllum; desuden optræder her en Del Sporobolus virginicus og navnlig Masser af
Cassytha americana. Af de nævnte Fanerofyter gaar Dalbergia længst ud ; den
træffes i Canavalia-Bevoksningen som lave men kraftige Individer med lange ned-
liggende Grene fra den nederste Del af Stammen.

Saa snart man kommer om paa Sydøstkysten forandres Forholdene. Paa
den sydlige Del af denne Kyst (ved 20 i Fig. 17) skærer Havet i Øjeblikket bort af
Landet, der ender i en stejl, af Havet undergravet lav Brink, bevokset med den
sædvanlige Kratvegetations lave Fanerofyter, hvoraf nogle ligger nedstyrtede paa
Stranden delvis begravede i Sandet (Fig. 22). Længere mod Nordøst nedbrydes
Kysten vel ikke i Øjeblikket men der sker heller ikke nogen Tilvækst; umiddel-
bart indenfor en ganske smal Strand bliver Terrænet pludselig lidt højere, bevokset
med Krat, i hvis yderste Rand der findes en Del af de sædvanlige Strandplanter,
navnlig Ipomaea, Canavalia, Sesuvium og Sporobolus. Saaledes er Stranden til om-
trent ud for Sydenden af Westend Salt Pond; herfra og mod Nordøst, langs den
smalle Landstrimmel, som adskiller Westend Salt Pond fra Havet, finder atter en
Tilvækst Sted, eller en saadan har idetmindste fundet Sted i den nyeste Tid; der
ses her et bredt, navnlig af Pescaprae-Formationens Planter dækket Parti mellem
Havet og Kratvegetalionen. Dette ny Terræn begynder ganske smalt mod Sydvest,
tiltager herfra til omkring Midten jevnt i Bredde for saa atter at blive smallere
mod Nordøst. Paa Midten er dette Terræn c. 50 Meter bredt; indenfor en c. 2 Meter
bred Strand følger en 1 — 2 Meter bred Stribe af opskyllede Blade af Cymodocea og
Thalassia; derefter et c. 22 Meter bredt Parti dannet af tre lave Sandvolde og til-
svarende Dale, bevoksede med Ipomaea pescaprae, Sporobolus virginicus, Sesuvium
portulacaslrum, Cakile lanceolata og Euphorbia buxifolia. I Regelen kan der skelnes

Fig. 22.

Fra Sydostkysten af Sandy Point paa St. Croix, ved 20 paa Kortet Fig. 17 (24. 1. (Xi).

der bort af Kysten.

Paa dette Sted ska-res

Kig. 2a.

Fra Sydøstkysten af Sandy Point paa Si. Croix, ved 22 paa Kortet Fig. 17 (2(i. 1. O«). Pescaprae-Formationcns
inderste Facies: Tournefortia-Facies paa Overgangen til Cocooloba-Formalionen. Midt paa liilledct ses
en kuppelformet Tourncfortia gnaplmloiles og bag ved denne en Ilippomane mancinilla. lîundvegetalioncn
bestaar af Pescaprae-Forinalioiiens sædvanlige Arter: Ipoimiea pescaprae , Sporoboliis viri/iiiiciis, Cunuualia ob-
tusifülia, Euphorbia buxifulia og Ceiichrus echiiiatiis: heri en aal>en Bevoksning af Tourne forlia, Hippomane,

Scaeuola Plumieri, Coccoloba uvifera og Caesalpinia crista.
I). K. I). Vidensk. Selsli. Skr., 7. Hickke. iiaturvidcnsU. o^î luutlicm, Afd. VIII. 1. Q

nielleiu følgende Facies, idet den dominerende Art skiftei-, naar man gaar udefra
indefter; Yderst en Sesuvium-Facies, hvor Sesuuiiim portulacastrnm er domi-
nerende over de andre Arter; derefter en Pescaprae-Facies og en Sporoljolus-
Facies, hvor henholdfivis Ipomaea pescaprae og Sporobolus uiryiniciis er dommerende;
hist og her findes enkelte Individer af Scaevola Plumieri og Toiirnefortia gnaphalodes.

Derefter følger en lav, flad, indtil 10 Meter bred Vold, der er bevokset med de
samme Arter som findes i de foregaaende Facies, men hvor det mest i Øjne faldende
er bredt kuppelformede Grupper af Tournefortia gnaphalodes (Fig. 23 — 24), en
Tournefortia-Facies'; dette er en Overgangsvegetation til Coccoloba-Fornia-
tionen; enkelte Arter fra denne Formations yderste Rand er allerede indvandret,
navnlig Hippomane mancinilla, Coccoloba iwifern og Caesalpinia crista.

Indenfor den nævnte, af Tournefortia-Facies dækkede Vold, endelig, følger
et noget lavere Terræn, en indtil 14 Meter bred Dal (Fig. 24), bevokset væsentlig
med Sporobohis og Ipomaea; desuden findes her Euphorbia buxifolia, Canavalia
obtusifolia, Cenchrus echinatus og, hist og her, enkelte Tournefortia-Grupper og enkelte
Individer af Scaevola Plumieri. Saa vel denne Dal som den udenfor liggende Vold
bliver baade mod Nord og mod Syd smallere og smallere; tilsidst forsvinder Volden
helt, og Dalen gaar over i det smalle, af Pescaprae-Facies dækkede Parti langs
Stranden.

I Sammenligning med Nordvestkysten udmærker Sydøstkysten sig ved en
rigere, mere forskelligartet Vegetation og derved, at der ikke her findes en udpræget
Canavalia-Facies, og at der i den yderste Rand af Pescaprae-Formatlonen er en smal
Sesuvium-Facies, f. Eks. ligesom langs Vestkysten af Westend Salt Pond; desuden
er Overgangsvegetationen mellem Pescaprae-Formationen og Coccoloba-Formationen
væsentlig karakteriseret ved Tournefortia gnaphalodes.

Coccoloba-Formationen.

Med Undtagelse af den forholdsvis ganske smalle af Pescaprae-Formationen
dækkede Strimmel langs Kysten, er Sandy Point dækket af en Kratvegetation,
Coccoloba-Formationen, der foruden denne Formalions sædvanlige Bestanddele
mdeholde ikke faa Arter, som i Almindelighed ikke findes, i hvert Tilfælde ikke sam-
lede, i de mere begrænsede Bevoksninger, som udgør Coccoloba-Formationen andre
Steder i Dansk Vestindien. I Regelen er Krattet tæt, og da det ofte er blandet med
tornede Arter, især Caesalpinia crista, er det ofte næsten uigennemtrængeligt; kun
pletvis er Bevoksningen mere aaben (Fig. 26 og 29). Nogle Steder danner Coccoloba og
Ernodea littoralis i Forening eller hver for sig en ganske lav, kun ^1-2 — 1 Meter høj, men
ret tæt Bevoksning, saaledes især paa en lang Strækning mellem Westend Salt Pond og
Sydøstkysten (Fig. 25); men i Almindelighed er Krattet 2 — 4 Meter højt; kun hist og her
rager enkelte Individer lidt højere op. Artsammensætningen er meget vekslende;
snart har en snart en anden Art Overvægten; ofte er det Coccoloba uvifera; andre Ste-
der er det Ernodea littoralis (Fig. 29), Chrysobalanus icaco (Fig. 26), Lantana involucrata,

' Opføres af F. Borgesen (Notes on the Shore Vegetation of the Danish West Indian Islands,
Pag. 23(i) som en selvstændig Formation sideordnet med Pescaprae- og Coccoloba-Formationerne.

Kig. 24.

Fra Syclostkyslen af Sandy Point paa St. Croix|, ved 22 paa Kortet Fig. 17, set mod: nordost (2(j. l.^nCi). Til
VeiLstrt-: Coccoloba-Fornialionen; til Ilojre: Tournerortia-I'acies. i livilkcn der ses en Ilippoinaiie
iiianciiulla (den morke I5usk); i Midten et c. 14 M. bredt, svagt dallormct Terra'n bevokset alene med Pes-
caprae-Forniationeus sædvanlige Arter: Ipoiuaea pcscaprae , Canaualia obtiisi/ulia, Spurobulus uirginicus,

Cenchrus cchinatiis og Euphorbia biixifolia.

Fig. 25.

Krattet - Coccoloba-Forniation — paa Sandy Point paa St. Croix, ved 24 paa Ivortet Fig. 17 (8. 1. (Xi).

En ganske lav, '4 1 M. hoj Bevoksning af Cocco/obu iivifcra og Ernodca litloralis: desuden l.antaiia iiwuliicrata,

Chrysubahiii-is icaco, EritliaUs frulicosa og Cunella alba.

Erithalis fruticosa eller Euphorbia linearis, som danner den overvejende Del af
Vegelalionen. Af Arter, som idetmindsle pletvis optræder i større Mængde, kan
desuden nævnes: Corchorus hirsutus, Croion betulinus, C. discolor, Rhacoma crosso-
petahim. Elaeodendron xylocarpiim, Colnbrina ferruginea, Bumelia obovala, Jacquinia
armillaris, Coiwolimlus jamaicensis, C. pentantbus, Ipomaea triloba, Tecoma leucoxijlon,
Anthacanthus spinosus, Cardia nitida og Clerodendron aculeatiim. Af smaa Kralbunds-
planter findes kun faa saa vel hvad Arter som Individer angaar; det er navnlig
Bulbostylis pauciflora, Fimbristylis ferruginea, Mariscus brunncus, Sporobolus virginicus,
Kallstroemeria maxima og, navnlig langs en gennem Krattet hugget Vej, Pedis Inimi-
fusa, Stijlosanthes hamata, Dactylodenium aegyptiacum, Stenotaphrum americanum
og Eragrostis ciliaris.

Efterfølgende Fortegnelse omfatter de Arter, som jeg har fundet paa Sandy
Point i den tidligere givne Begrænsning af dette Omraade. Foruden de opførte
Arter saa jeg idetmindsle endnu en Art, en Psamma arenaria-lignende Graniiné,
som jeg ogsaa liar set et Par andre Steder i Dansk Vestindien, men altid gold,
hvorfor jeg ikke har kunnet bestemme den; desuden forekommer det mig, at jeg
saa endnu et Par Arter, men da de hverken findes i mine Optegnelser eller i mine
Samlinger, har jeg ikke medtaget dem. Jeg er klar over, at yderligere Undersøgelser
efter al Sandsynlighed vil forøge Artslisten en Del; men det som det for mig kommer
an paa her, Fanerofyternes Overvægt over de øvrige Livsformer, vil ganske sikkert
vedblive at staa ved Magt. 1 Listen har jeg ved hver Art vedføjet Artens Livsform;
nogle Fanerofyter optræder imidlertid paa Sandy Point i en anden, mere beskyttet
Livsform end den, hvori de ellers optræder i Dansk Vestindien; i disse Tilfælde er
den Livsform, hvori Arten optræder paa Sandy Point vedføjet i Parenthes.

1 tidligere Arbejder' har jeg givet en Fremstilling af de Livsformer, som der
i det følgende bliver Tale om, og jeg har ligeledes tidligere gjort Rede for Grundene
til , at jeg ved de planteklimatiske Undersøgelser idetmindste foreløbig kun tager
Hensyn til Livsform-Klasserne. For imidlertid at spare Læseren for den Ulejlighed
at efterse disse Afhandlinger, vil jeg her saa kort som muligt give en Oversigt over
mit Livsform-System og dets Anvendelse.

Jeg gaar ud fra, at hvis Livsformerne skal kunne bruges som Udtryk for
Planteklimaet og være praktisk anvendelige, maa de bygges paa en væsentlig og
tillige let iagttagelig Side af Planternes Tilpasning til Klimaet; og for at de skal
kunne tjene som Basis for en sammenlignende statistisk Undersøgelse, uden hvilken
man ikke kommer ud over Turist-Standpunktet i Plantegeografien, maa Livsform-
Systemets Basis være et Enhedssynspunkt.

Jeg har derfor baseret Livsform-Systemet paa og karakteriseret de enkelte
Livsformer ved Hjælp af Planternes Tilpasning til at overleve ugunstige
Aarstider, navnlig Beskyttelsen af de overlevende Knopper og Skud-
spidser, paa hvis Bevarelse Individets Eksistens beror.

' Raunkiær, c, Planterigets Livsformer og deres Betydning for Geografien. Kjøbenliavn 1907.

— Livsformernes Statistik som Grundlag for biologisk Plantegeografi. Bot. Tidsskrift.

29. Bind. 1908.

Ved et Oniraades biologiske Spektrum foistaar jeg de tilstedeværende
Arters procen tiske Fordeling paa de forskellige Livsformer eller
Li vsfor m -Klasser. Efter den mindre eller større Grad af Tilpasning til at over-
leve ugunstige Aarstider bliver samtlige Arter paa denne Maade fordelte i Grupper,
hvis indbyrdes Størrelse giver el Udtryk for Planteklimaets væsentligste Side; og
det har vist sig, at hvert enkelt Hoved-Klima har Tyngdepunktet i hver
sin Li vsfor m -Klasse; gaar man fra det ene Klima til det andet, forskydes det
biologiske Spektrums Tyngdepunkt til den tilsvarende Livsform-Klasse.

I Figurerne 27 — 28 har jeg givet en skematisk Oversigt over de 10 Livsform-
klasser, af hvilke de 8 sidste danner en fortløbende Række, i hvilken hver enkelt

Fig. 26.

Krallet — C.occololia-Formalioiien — jüta Sandy Point i)aa St. Croix, ved IS ]jaa Kortet l'if^. 17 (2(i. 1. Oti).

Til Venstre: ne<lli^gende Skud at Chrysohalanus kaco oi^ Eriiodca Ulloralis; længere tilbage: Coccoloba uuifcra.

I Sandet: Sporobolus uirginicus og unge Planter af CamwaUa obtusifolia angrebet af Cassytlm americana , hvis

Stængler vokser hen over Sandet fra den ene Værtplante til den anden.

i det Store og Hele er bedre tilpasset til at overleve ugunstige Aarstider end de
foregaaende; de to første derimod, Stængelsukulenterne og Epifyterne, kan ikke paa
denne Maade anvises Plads i Rækken; jeg har derfor anbragt dem sammen foran
de andre. De 10 Livsform-Klasser kan atter sammenfattes i 5 Hovedtyper, 5 Livs-
form-Rækker: Fanerofyter, Chaniæfyter, Heniikryptofy ter, K ry p to fy ter
og Therofyter. I mange Tilfælde vil det være tilstrækkeligt at tage Hensyn alene
til Livsform-Rækkerne, idet de forskellige Klimater kan sammenfattes i 4 Klima-
Rækker svarende til og karakteriserede ved fire af Livsform-Rækkerne, nemlig
Fanerofyter, Chamæfyter, Hemikryptofyfer og Therofyter; ved Undersøgelsen i
Naturen bør man dog bestemme de enkelte Arters Livsform saa detailleret som
muligt.

Oversigt over Livsformerne. Hertil Fig. 27 — 28; fra Venstre til Højre:

I. Faiierofyter, Planter hvis overlevende Knopper eller Skudspidser findes paa
frit i Luften fremragende Skud. Herunder ô I^ivsform-Klasser :

Klasse 1. S t æ n g e 1 s u k u 1 e n t e r.

— 2. Epifyler, o: fancrofyte Epifyter og fanerofyte Parasiter.

— 3. Mega -[- Mesofanerofy ter, o: over 8 M. høje Fanerofyter.

— 4. Mikrofanerofyter, o: 2 — 8 M. høje Fanerofyter.

— 5. Nanofanerofyter, o: '/i — 2 M. hoje Fanerofyter.

Fanerofyter

N
Nano-
fanerofyter.

V.,-2'iNI.

Fig. 27.
Fig. 27—28. Skeinalisiv Fremstilling af Livsform-Klasserne. De Partier af Planterne, som dor bort i den ugun-
stige Aarstid, er lyse paa Billederne; de blivende Skud eller Skudpartier med de overlevende Knopper
derimod sorte. Over Figurerne findes Navnene paa Livsform-Hækkerne, under Figurerne Navnene paa Livs-
form-Klasserne og de Tegn, Navnenes Begyndelsesbogstaver, som, for Kortheds Skyld, benyttes i Stedet for

Navnene i de biologiske Spektra.

n. Chaiiiiiifjter, med kun en Klasse:

Klasse 6. Chamæfyter, o: Planter hvis overlevende Knopper eller Skud-
spidser sidder paa Skud eller Skuddele, der befinder sig paa
Jordfladen, indtil ';i M. over denne.

HL Hemikryptofj'ter, med kun en Klasse:

Klasse 7. Hem ikry p tofy ter, o: Planter hvis overlevende Knopper be-
finder sig i Jordskorpen; de overjordiske Skud eller Skuddele
lever kun en Vækstperiode og dør bort ved den ugunstige Aars-
tids Begyndelse.
IV. Kryptofyter, Planter hvis overlevende Knopper er skjulte i Jorden, i en vis
Dybde under Overfladen, eller paa Bunden af Vandet; de overjordiske Skud
eller Skuddele lever kun en Vækstperiode. Herunder to Klasser:

Klasse 8. Geo fy ter, o: Landplanter hvis overlevende Knopper findes i en
vis Dybde i Jorden, forskellig hos de forskellige Arter.
— 9. Helo + Hydrofyter, o: Planler hvis overlevende Knopper fuides
i vandniætlet Bund eller paa Bunden af Vandet.

Tlierofyter, med kun en Klasse:

Klasse 10. Tlierofyter, o: Planler som kun lever en Vækstperiode og som
derfor alene ved den i Frøet indesluttede og beskyttede Kim
overlever den ugunstige Aarstid.

Chnrna^fytcr

Hemikrvpto-
fylei-

Kryplofyler

Tlierofyter

Helo + Hydro-

fyter

Th
Therofyler

Fig. 28.

De paa Sandy Point fundne Blomsterplanter og deres Livsform.

Livsform '

Epidendrum papilionaceum Vahl E

Bulbostylis pauciflora (Liebm.) C. B. Clarke H

Fimbristylis ferruginea (L.) Vahl H

Mariscus brunneus (Sw.) C. B. Clarke H

Sporobolus virginicus (L.) Kth G

Dactyloctenium aegyptiacum (L.) Willd Th

Stenotaphrum americanum Schrank Ch

Eragrostis ciliaris (L.) Lk Th

Cenchrus echinatus L Th

Coccoloba diversifolia Jacq M

— uvifera (L.) Jacq M

Philoxerus vermicularis (L.) R. Br Ch

') Bogstavernes Betydning ses i Fig. 27—28.

Livsform

Bâtis maritima L Ch

Pisonia subcordata Sw M

Sesuvium portulacastrum L Ch

Cassytha americana Nees E

Cakile lanceolata (Wilid.) C. G. Schulz Th

Canella alba Murr M (N)

Melochia tomentosa L N

Malachra capitata L N

Corchorus hirsutus L N

Croton betulinus Vahl N

— discolor Willd N

Argythamnia candicans Sw N

Euphorbia buxifolia Lam Ch

— linearis Retz N

Hippomane mancinilla L M

Kallstroemeria maxima (L.) W. et A Ch

Castela recta Turp N

Suriana maritima L N

Comocladia ilicifolia Sw M (N)

Dodonaea viscosa L N

Stigmatophyllum emarginatum (Cav.) Juss N

— periplocifolium (DC.) A. Juss M (N)

Elaeodendron xylocarpuni DC M (N)

Rhacoma crossopetalum L N

Colubrina ferruginea Brongn M (N)

Chrysobalanus icaco L M (N)

Caesalpinia bonduc (L.) Roxb N

— crista L. N

Canavalia obtusifolia (Lam.) P. DC N (Ch)

Dalbergia hecastophyllum (L.) Taub M (N)

Stylosanthes hamata (L.) Taub Ch

Tephrosia cinerea (L.) Pers Cli

Acacia Farnesiana (L.) Willd M (N)

Leucaena glauca (L.) Bth M (N)

Pithecolobium unguis-cati (L.) Bth M (N)

Turnera ulmifolia L N

Bucida buceras L MM (M)

Conocarpus erectus L M (N)

Laguncularia racemosa Gärtn M (N)

Eugenia buxifolia (Sw.) Willd N

— axillaris (Sw.) Willd M (N)

Livsform

Bumelia obovata (Lam.) DC N

Jacquinia arniillaris Jacq M (N)

Convolvulus jamaicensis Jacq N

— pentanthus Jacq N

Ipomaea pcscaprae (L.) S\v Ch

— triloba L N

Solanum racemosum L N

Capraria biflora L N

Tecoma leucoxylon (L.) Mart MM (M)

Anthacanthus spinosus (L.) Nees N

Cordia nitida Vahl M (N)

Heliotropium curassavicum L Ch

— parviflorum L Ch

Tournefortia gnaphalodes (Jacq.) R. Br N

Avicennia nitida Jacq M (N)

Clerodendron aculeatum (L.) Griseb M (N)

Lantana involucrata L N

Stachytarpheta jamaicensis (L.) Vahl Ch

Echites suberecta Jacq M (N)

Forestiera segregata (Jacq.) Kr. et Urb N

Erithalis fruticosa L N

Ernodea littoralis S\v N

Randia aculeata L M (N)

Scacvola Plumierii (L.) Vahl N

Borrichia arborescens (L.) DC N

Pectis humifusa Sw Ch

Pluchea odorata (L.) Cass N

l> K I). Vldensk Selsk. Slii . 7 Hække, niiturvliicnsk. n|< m.itheni Alcl VIII.

LIVSFORMEN HOS PLANTER PAA NY JORD.

ed et Blik paa Listen over de paa Sandy Point fundne Arter vil man
straks se, at Fanerofyterne dominerer; en nærmere Undersøgelse vil desuden godt-
gøre, at dette lille Omraade med kun 80 Arter viser et biologisk Spektrum, der,
saa godt det kan forlanges, harmonerer med det biologiske Spektrum for Dansk
Vestindien i det Hele taget, og det skønt Sandy Point baade er et geologisk set nyt
Land og bestaar af en Jordbund, der er aldeles forskellig fra den, som ellers er
den herskende i Dansk Vestindien. Dette fører ind paa det Spørgsmaal, om der
indenfor samme Klima overhovedet er nogen væsentlig Forskel mellem det biolo-
logiske Spektrum af geologisk set ny Jords Flora og det biologiske Spektrum af
geologisk set gamle Landes Flora, og i hvilken Grad Indvandring af ny Arter i en
Flora har Indflydelse paa dennes biologiske Spektrum.

Det gælder enhver Flora, at der fra Tid til anden indvandrer ny Arter, og
navnlig indslæbes der jo en Mængde Arter overalt, hvor Kulturen naar hen, og
dette gælder saa vel i geologisk set gamle som ny Floraer; men de Heste af disse
indslæbte Arter er i Regelen kun i Stand til at holde sig ved Hjælp af Kulturen;
ved Fremstillingen af det biologiske Spektrum maa disse Arter selvfølgelig lades
ude af Betragtningen, da de ikke eller dog kun i ringere Grad er et Udtryk for
Planleklimaet men et Udslag af Kultur, og derfor idetmindste undertiden vilde
komme til at tilsløre det væsentlige i det biologiske Spektrum, hvis de medtages.
Dette gælder navnlig mange Therofyter, som jo i Regelen danner en væsentlig Be-
standdel af de indslæbte og til Kulturbund bundne Arter, og som netop paa Grund
af deres Livsform er egnede til Forholdene paa den dyrkede, aarligt bearbejdede Jord.

Men blandt de i de enkelte Lande indvandrede og indslæbte Arter er der ogsaa
en Del, som formaar at holde sig ved egen Hjælp, idet de er i Stand til at hævde
sig i Konkurrencen med de oprindelige Beboere; saadanne Arter maa siges at have
faaet Borgerret i Landet og maa medtages ved Fremstillingen af vedkommende
Lands biologiske Spektrum. Men Hovedspørgsmaalet drejer sig her ikke om, hvor
mange eller hvor faa Arter det er, som saaledes efterhaanden faar Borgerret; det,
som det her gælder om, er, hvorvidt de ny, indvandrede Arter i væsentlig Grad
forandrer den oprindelige Floras biologiske Spektrum; hvis de ikke gør dette, er
del for min biogeografiske Betragtningsmaade ganske ligegyldigt, hvor mange Arter

(1er er indvandrede; hvis de ny, indvandrede Arter ikke forandrer del biologiske
Spektrum, da er det et yderligere Bevis for, at det biologiske Spektrum er el sandt
Udtryk for Plantekliniael, idet det viser, at endog de ny tilkomne Arters Fordeling
paa de forskellige Livsformer følger den samme Lov som den oprindelige Floras
Arter.

I Kulturlande, hvor den oprindelige Flora er gennemgribende forandret, idet-
mindste hvad Vegetationens Fysiognomi angaar, og hvor der er indslæbt en stor
Mængde ny Arter, maa man naturligvis ikke vente, at disse slet ingen Indllydelse
har paa det biologiske Spektrum; men deraf kan man ikke straks slutte, at del
biologiske Spektrum er et mindre fuldkomment Udtryk for Planleklimael; thi da

Fig 29. -

Krattet — Coc'cololja-I*'ormationen — paa Sandy Point jiaa St. Ooix, ved 17 paa Kortet Fig, 17 (24. 1. 0(3). Lavt Kral
i\f Ernociea Uttoralis; aal)ne Pletter med Sporobotus viri/itiicus, etc.; i liaggrunden ses enke\lii Coccoloba iivifera.

Bestemmelsen af, hvilke af de ny Arter der maa anses for at have Borgerret og
saaledes bliver medbestemmende for Spektrets Udseende, delvis afhænger af Skøn
som i alle lignende Tilfælde, er der Mulighed for, at nogle Arter medtages, som
maaske ikke burde medtages, og omvendt; i Regelen kommer man vistnok lettest
til al tage for mange Arter med.

I Almindelighed er Forholdet delle, at de naturaliserede Arter, de ny Arter,
som maa siges al have faaet Borgerret, ikke medfører nogen væsentlig Forandring
af det biologiske Spektrum og navnlig at de aldrig tilslører det i det biologiske
Spektrum, som er det særlig karakteristiske for vedkommende Planleklima. Kun
paa el Funkl kan de ny Arter faa en mærkbar Indflydelse paa Spektret, nemlig
paa deltes Therofyt-Procent. Det er jo som bekendt de fleste Steder saaledes, al

Therofylerne udgør en langt større Del af de indvandrede og indslæbte Arter end
af den oprindelige Floras Arter; Aarsagerne hertil skal jeg ikke her komme ind
paa. Ved Afgørelsen af, hvilke af de ny Arter der maa anses for at have Borger-
ret i et Lands Flora, kommer man vistnok let til netop at medtage tiere Therofyter
end man strængt taget er berettiget til, og idetmindste tildels derfor vil de ny Arter
ofte komme til at forhøje det biologiske Spektrums Therofyt-Procent noget; men
selv i saadanne Tilfælde vil den forhøjede Therofyt-Procent dog aldrig komme til
at skjule det karakteristiske i vedkommende Planteklimas Spektrum. Selv om f Eks.
Danmarks Therofyt-Procent af ovennævnte Grund bliver for høj, vil den dog, i den
atter til sig selv overladte Flora, aldrig kunne blive saa høj, at den kommer til
at trykke Hemikryptofyt-Procenten ned under det for Hemikryplofyl-Klimaet karak-
teristiske høje Tal; dertil vilde der nemlig kræves, at man ved Skønnet over, hvilke
Therofyter der skal anses for at have Borgerret i Danmarks Flora, maatte med-
regne nogle Hundrede Arter liere Therofyter end der findes i Danmark udenfor den
dyrkede Jord.

Der foreligger Materiale nok til Afgørelsen af Spørgsmaalet om, i hvilken Grad
de ny Borgere i en Flora forandrer denne Floras biologiske Spektrum. Paa dette
Sled skal jeg imidlertid indskrænke mig til at vise et enkelt Forhold, nemlig Ind-
vandringen fra Europa til Nordamerika eller rettere til den Del af Nordamerika,
som Britten & Brown's 111. Flora omfatter, og som hører, hvad der ogsaa
fremgaar af de biologiske Spektra i Tab. 1 No. 4—5, til Hemikryptofyt-Klimaet;
kun den nordligste Del gaar ind i det boréale Planteklima, hvilkel imidlertid ikke
har nogen Betydning i denne Sammenhæng. P. Klincksieck ' har efter Britten &
Brown's 111. Flora givet en Liste over de til det paagældende Omraade indvandrede
Arter saa vidt som de tilhører den europæiske Flora. Man kan nu undersøge,
hvilke Arter der er indvandrede til et enkelt mere begrænset Omraade, en enkelt
Slat, og saa se, hvorledes deny Borgere paavirker den oprindelige Floras Spektium;
en saadan Undersøgelse har jeg imidlertid endnu ikke foretaget. Men man kan
ogsaa gaa en anden Vej. Det er en Kendsgærning, at de allerlleste af de til el
Land indvandrede Arter, som har værel i Stand til at hævde sig i Konkurrencen
med Landets oprindelige Beboere og derfor har faaet Borgerret, er indvandrede fra
Lande med samme Planteklima som det, hvori deres ny Fædreland ligger. Man
kan derfor undersøge Spørgsmaalet paa den Maade, at man i foreliggende Tilfælde
bestemmer det biologiske Spektrum for de Arter, som er indvandrede til Nord-
amerikas Hemikryptofyt-Klima fra det tilsvarende Klima i Europa; hvis de ind-
vandrede Arters Spektrum afviger stærkt fra det sædvanlige Hemikryptofyt-Klimas
S[)ektrum, vil dette, hvis Indvandringen er meget stor i Forhold til de oprindelige
Arters Tal, forandres mere eller mindre paa Grund af Indvandringen; i modsat Fald
vil der ingen Forandring finde Sted, selv om Indvandringen er nok saa stor.

Af de c. 370 europæiske Arter, som i 1896 var fundne som naturaliserede i den

' Ki.iNCKSiKCK, P., Les plantes d'Europe adventices ou naturalisées aux États-Unis d'Amérique,
constatées à deux intervalles: 1832 et 1896. Bull. Soc. Bot. Fr. 54, 1907, p. XXX— XLII.

osllige Del af det mellemste Nordamerika, tilhører de 216 ogsaa Danmarks Flora
og hører i det Hele taget lijemme i Mellemeuropa; disse Arter viser nu det i Tab. 1
No. 2 fremstillede Spektrum med 47 Procent Hemikryptofyter, altsaa el udpræget
Hemikryplofytklinia-Spektrum, der, Irods del ringe Artslal, ikke desmindre ogsaa
hvad de andre, her underordnede Livsformer angaar, viser Hemikryptofytklima-
Spektrets karakteristiske Talrække; det eneste Tal, der afviger mærkbart fra det Tal.

Tiib. 1.

1. Euiopæiski.', ogsaa i Danmark fuiulne
Arter, som allerede 1832 var indvan-
drede til de ostlige Stater af U. S.

2. Do. Do. som var Indvandrede og na-
turaliserede i 1896

3. Danmark '

4. Altamaha, Georgia '

5. Syd-Labrador '

Arts-

Arternes procentiske Fordeling paa Livsformerne.

tal

G HH

—

— .

216

—

0,5

6,5

1084

—

717

—

334

: —

—

som idetmindste er Regelen ellers, er Therofyt-Procenlen. Angaaende dette Punkt
har jeg foran sagt, at man ved Skønnet over, hvilke Arter der maa betragtes
som havende faael Borgerret, vistnok let kommer til at medtage netop for mange
Thcrofyler, nemlig ogsaa en Del Arter, som vilde forsvinde fra vedkommende Land,
hvis al Kultur af Jorden hørte op, og Landet ganske blev overladt til sig selv.
Men selv om man holder sig til det foieliggende Spektrum med dels ."{2 Procent
Therofyter, saa vil en Indvandring af denne Beskaffenhed, selv om Indvandringen
blev nok saa stor, jo dog aldrig kunne komme til at forandre et Hemikryplofyl-
klima-Spektrums væsentligste Træk: den høje Hemikryptofyt-Procent, da delte jo
netop er fælles for begge Spektra.

I Listen over de europæiske Arter, som i 189(i var naturaliserede i del nævnte
Omraade af Nordamerika, har P. Klincksieck særtegnet de Arter, som efter Schwei-
NiTZ^ allerede 1832 var indvandrede; jeg har ligeledes her udtaget de Arier, som
ogsaa tilhører Danmarks Flora, ialt 57, hvis Spektrum ses i Tab. 1 No. 1. Trods
det ganske ringe Artstal, slemmer dette Spektrum paa en slaaende Maade overens
med det første Spektrum; man maa undres over den Præcision, med hvilken Ar-
ternes Livsform følger Klimaet, hvorved det paa Livsformen grundede biologiske
Spektrum bliver et saa adækvat Udtryk for Planleklimaet, som man under saa
komplicerede Forhold kan forlange.

' Raunkiær, C, Livsformernes Statistik etc., S. 52 og 55.
■^ Se: Ki.iNCKSiECK, I.e., p. XXXI.

Tallel af de indvaiulrede og indslæbte Aiier, som kan staa sig i Konkurrencen
med de oprindelige Arier, er kun lille; og selv om de, hvad Livsform angaar, var
ensidige, .1: ikke i Overensstemmelse med den oprindelige Floras Spektrum, vilde
de dog ikke forandre dette stort; men nu er de erfaringsmæssigt ikke ensidige; del
er tværtimod overall saaledes, at de naturaliserede Arters Spektium har Tyngde-
punktet paa samme Sled i Spektret som den oprindelige Flora, og derved under-
streges yderligere det biologiske Spektrums Værdi som biologisk Udtryk for Klimaet,
som biologisk Klimareagens.

Hvis det overhovedel en Gang vil ske, at de efterhaanden indvandrede og na-
turaliserede Arter forandrer en Floras biologiske Spektrum saaledes, at delle derved
kommer til at betegne et andel Planteklima, vil sikkert selv et tlygligl Blik paa
Landets Vegetation belære om, at dennes Sammensætning ikke længere er et Natur-
produkt men et Kulturprodukt og opretholdt ved Kultur.

I det foregaaende er omtalt, at de naturaliserede Arter, hvad det procentiske
Forhold mellem Livsformerne angaar, i det væsentlige falder sammen med det til-
svarende Forhold i Landets oprindelige Flora, saaledes at Floraens Spektrum ikke
bliver væsentlig forandret; dette fremgaar desuden af, hvad jeg paa et andel Sled
har vist', nemlig dette, at .samtlige undersøgte Lokalfloraer i samme Klima men
paa højst forskellige Steder paa Jorden stemmer overens med Hensyn til det bio-
logiske Spektrum , skønt saa vel den oprindelige som den adventive Flora er for-
skellig med Hensyn til Artssammensætning.

Foruden ved Indvandring kan en Flora tænkes forandret ved, at visse op-
rindelige Arter fortrænges og udryddes ved Kulturen, og det biologiske Spektrum
kan derved tænkes forandret saaledes, at det ikke længere er el sandt Udtryk for
Planteklimaet. Det er jo en Selvfølge, at naar man paa et større eller mindre Om-
raade udrydder alle eller dog de fleste vildtvoksende Plantearter, saa at Landet kun
er bevokset med Kulturplanter og Ukrudt, saa kan man ikke vente, at delte Kultur-
produkt skal være el Udtryk for Naturbetingelserne alene, da del jo væsentlig er
betinget af Kultur. Men ved planteklimatiske Undersøgelser spiller dette ingen
Rolle; thi her arbejder man ikke med enkelte Kvadratkilometre eller med det, der
er endnu mindre, men med Landsdele og Lande; og her bliver Forholdet et andet;
thi selv om vi tager et saa lille Omraade som Danmark, da har de i historisk Tid
udryddede eller fra Danmarks Flora forsvundne Arter ikke forandret et eneste Tal
i Danmarks biologiske Spektrum ; for at formindske eller forhøje et Tal med blot
en Procent, maa der ikke alene forsvinde 10 — 11 Arter, men disse Arter maa tillige
alle høre til en og samme Livsform; hvis Danmarks biologiske Spektrum skulde
forandres saaledes, at det ikke længere viste Hemikryptofytklimaels karakteristiske
høje Hemikryptofyt-Procent, maalte der altsaa ikke alene forsvinde over 200 Arter,
men disse maalte desuden alle være Hemikryptofyler.

Selv om Danmarks c. 6 "/o Skov blev udryddet, vilde dette ikke, som Warming-

mener, forandre det biologiske Spektrums Karakter; thi fordi Skovene udryddes,

' Raunkiær. C, Livsformernes Statistik etc.

- Warming, E., Om Planterigets Livsformer. 1908. S. 23.

forsvinder dog derfor ikke de skovdannende Arter; og min Behandlingsmaade er
baseret paa Artstallet, ikke paa Individniængden.

Og selv om endelig den fantastiske Tanke blev til Virkelighed, at alle Indi-
vider af Træer og Buske blev udryddede, vilde dette kun medføre, at Danmarks
7 Procent Fanerofyter forsvandt fra det biologiske Spektrum, men denne Forsvinden
vilde ikke blot ikke formindske det, som er det karakteristiske ved Danmarks biolo-
giske Spektrum, nemlig den hoje Hemikryptofyt-Procent, men det vilde endog for-
høje denne med nogle Procent. Og til Trods for, at Fanerofyterne var fjernede,
vilde Spektret ikke kunne anbringes andre Steder end der, hvor det ogsaa nu horer
hjemme, nemlig i Hemikryptofyt-Klimaet; og hvis man ikke vidste, fra hvilket
Land et saadant Spektrum stammede, vilde man ikke blot slutte, at det stammede
fra et Omraade indenfor Hemikryptofyt-Klimaet, men man maatte tillige slutte,
at dette Omraade enten maatte være ganske særligt ugunstigt, eller snarere at det
maalte være et Omraade, fra hvilket flere eller færre Arter Fanerofyter kunstig var
bleven fjernede; thi den lave Chamæfyt-Procent vilde øjeblikkeligt belære om, at det
hverken kunde stamme fra det arktiske Chamæfyt-Klima eller fra det boréale Klima.

Men nu er desuden et Omraade som Danmark ganske forsvindende lille, naar
der som her er Tale om Planteklima; den koldt tempererede Zone lige fra Atlantei-
havet til det stille Ocean i den gamle Verden og den tilsvarende Del af Nordamerika
viser væsentlig selvsamme biologiske Spektrum, Hemikryptofytklima-Spektret; og
selv om hvert Træ og hver Busk udryddedes fra Tusinder og atter Tusinder af Kva-
dratkilometre, behøvede derfor ikke en eneste Art at forsvinde fra det nævnte Plante-
klima-Omraade. Jeg husker i Øjeblikket ikke en eneste Art, som i den historiske Tid
vides at være forsvundet fra den koldt tempererede Zones Hemikryptofytklimas Om-
raade — trods Kulturens vældige Indgreb. For at forandre dette Omraades Spek-
trums Karakter som Hemikryptofytklima-Spektrum maatte der udryddes idetmindste
over 2000 Arter, og disse maatte desuden alle være Hemikryptofyter.

Vi skal nu lidt nærmere beskæftige os med det Spørgsmaal, hvorvidt der er
nogen Grund til at antage, at der er en væsentlig Forskel paa det biologiske Sj)ek-
triim for geologisk set gamle og geologisk set unge Landes Floraer. Jeg vil her
referere en af Warming's Udtalelser, der fremtræder som en Indvending mod
Anvendeligheden af mine Livsformer som Udtryk for Planteklimaet. Ved Omtalen
af Rigdommen i den tropiske Regnskov i Amazonas og Fattigdommen og Ensartet-
heden i Nordeuropas og Sibiriens Skove skriver Warming (I.e. S. 23^24): „Grundene
hertil ere vist to, nemlig dels maaske, at Artsudviklingen paa Grund af de uendeligt
gunstigere Kaar i Troperne gaar raskere for sig, hvilket jeg forøvrigt maa udtale
rent hypothetisk, dels i hvert Fald, at hine Skove have en uendeligt større Alder i
Jordens Historie, end vore, der maa være indvandrede efter Istiden. Her kommer
da et andet Moment til at spille med ind, nemlig Arternes Vandringsevne og den
utvivlsomt endnu ikke afsluttede Kamp mellem dem indbyrdes". Og efter at der
dernæst er henvist lil Artsrigdommen i visse Dele af Australien og Sydafrika til-

føjes: „Jeg ser ikke, at der foreligger nogen Nødvendighed for, at Forholdet mellem
Livsformerne alle Vegne er det samme i Lande med samme Klima men med vidt
forskellig Flora-Alder, og er det ikke dette, tør man vel heller ikke bygge alt for
sikre Slutninger paa dette Forhold med Hensyn til Planteklimaet".

Naar Warming ikke ser „nogen Nødvendighed for, at Forholdet mellem Livs-
formerne alle Vegne er det samme i Lande med samme Klima men med vidt for-
skellig Flora-Alder", kommer dette maaske af, at Warming ikke har undersøgt
dette Spørgsmaal nærmere og derfor heller ikke søger at vise, at Forholdet er
anderledes end af mig udtalt. Sagen er imidlertid mindre vanskelig at udrede, end
man maaske kunde antage, idet vi i forskellige Klimater har unge og gamle Dan-
nelser ved Siden af hverandre og saaledes er i Stand til at undersøge, om der er
nogen væsentlig Forskel mellem de biologiske Spektra af disse forskellige Dannelsers
Flora. Men selv om man ikke havde Materiale til en saadan Undersøgelse, vilde
man ved at underkaste Spørgsmaalet en mere indgaaende almindelig Betragtning
komme til et Resultat, der falder sammen med mit med Grunde underbyggede
Forsøg paa at skabe en biologisk Plantegeografi paa saa vidt muligt eksakt Grund-
lag. Før end jeg gaar over til en Fremstilling af bestemte Forhold, vil jeg derfor
underkaste Spørgsmaalet en saadan almindelig Betragtning og dertil vælge Sibiriens
Flora, som Warming nævner; Warming bruger ganske vist Udtrykket „Skove", men
jeg maa formode, at Warming dermed mener Floraen som Helhed, idet det kun
under denne Forudsætning kan være en Indvending mod min Betragtningsmaade,
der ikke angaar specielt Skovene men Floraen som Helhed.

Sibiriens Flora er geologisk set ung. og der er derfor efter Warmings Mening
Grund til at antage, at Kampen mellem Arterne ikke er afsluttet, og at alle de
Arter, som kan vokse her, endnu ikke er indvandrede. Dette er sikkert nok ganske
rigtigt, da vi jo stadig ser ny Arter indvandre saa her saa der; men, som jeg alle-
rede oftere har fremhævet, er det ikke det, som det her kommer an paa; det som
det kommer an paa er at faa Klarhed over, om der er nogensomhelst Grund til
at formode, at Indvandringen af ny Arter vil forandre det væsentlige i den nu-
værende Floras biologiske Spektrum, saa længe Klimaet forbliver det samme.

Lad os da her først se paa, hvorfra Sibirien overhovedet kan faa ny Plantearter.

Af Erfaring ved vi, at ingen eller saa godt som ingen af den tropiske Zones
Arter er i Stand til at vokse paa Friland i den koldt tempererede Zone, og endnu
mindre er de i Stand til at optage Kampen med denne Zones Arter; en Indvandring
af nogen Betydning fra Fanerofyt-Klimaet er derfor udelukket og finder som be-
kendt heller ikke Sted. Hvis der indvandrer Arter til Sibirien, maa de komme fra
Lande med væsentlig samme Klima; de maa komme fra andre Hemikryptofytklima-
Omraader; men her har vi jo nu netop allevegne væsentlig den samme Fordeling
af Arterne indenfor Livsformernes Række som i Sibirien; hvis derfor de Arter,
som maatte vandre til Sibirien, skal forandre dettes biologiske Spektrum, maa de
indvandrede Arter vise et helt andet biologisk Spektrum end Arterne i det Land,
hvorfra de stammer; efler det Side 53 omtalte Eksempel og ifølge hvad vi ellers

ved, er der ingen Grund til at antage noget saadant; og desuden, hvis den oprinde-
lige Floras Spektrum skal forandres saaledes, at det kommer til at betegne et andet
Planteklinia, maa de indvandrede Arters Spektrums Hemikryptofyt-Procent gaa ned
fra over 50 til under 30 Procent, og endda maatte Indvandringen være saa stor, at
de indvandrede Ariers Tal maatte langt overstige de oprindelige Arters Tal. Der
er intet som viser, at nogetsomhelst af dette finder Sted hverken i Sibirien eller i
noget andet Land paa Jorden.

Tab. 2.

1. Clova, Skotland', under 300 M. . . .

2. Danmarlc'

3. Stuttgarts Omegn '

4. Ob-Dalen, 61°— 66°32'

5. .lenisei-Dalen, 56° til Isliavet - .
G. Aragun-Burcja n. f. Amurtloden'

7. Sydlige Kuriler, s. f. Ketoi-Strædet^

8. N. Am. Sitcha '

9. - James Bay'

Normalspektrum '

Arts-
tal

304
1084
862
265
926
141
231
222
268
400

Arternes procentiske Fordeling paa Livsformerne.

MM M

3
1
3

2,5

3,5

3
3
3
6

2
3
3
2
1
5
6
3
3
17

N Ch H G HH Th

4
3
3

7
4
9
8
5
7
20

7
3
3

7
7
7
8
7
7
9

59
50
54
50
61
58
55
60
53
27

7
11
10
10

11
11

5
11

7
10

13
18
17
11,5
9

3,5

5
10
13

Warming (I.e., Side 24) synes, at Sibiriens Klima er et lige saa udpræget Træ-
Klima som Klimaet ved Amazonlloden. Hvorledes det i Virkeligheden forholder
sig vil ses ved en Betragtning af f. Eks. Jenisej-Dalens Flora. Denne omfatter
nord for Krasnojarsk 926 Arter, som viser det i Tab. 2 No. 5 fremstillede Spektrum;
af disse 926 Arter er 56 Fanerofyter, o: Trær og Buske, ialt 6 Procent; hvis denne
Floras Spektrum skulde skifte Karakter fra Sibiriens Hemikryptofytklima-Spektrum
til Amazonas Fanerofytklima-Spektrum, maatte der til Jenisej-Dalen indvandre over
1200 Arter Trær og Buske, og vel at mærke: Trær og Buske alene; der maatte
ikke samtidig komme Arter af andre Livsformer, thi i saa Tilfælde maatte Ind-
vandringen af Trær og Buske være endnu større.

' Raunki.icr, c, Livsformernes Statistik etc., S. 52 — 55.

- Planteliste i: Scheutz , N. J. , Plantae vasculares .Jeniseenccs , Kgl. Sv. Vetensk.-Akad. Handl.
Bd. 22. 1888.

" Planteliste i: Schmidt, Fr., Florula Amguno-Burejensis. Mcm. de l'Acad. iniper. des se. de St. Peters-
bourg. VII .Sér. Tome XII. 1868.

' Planteliste i: Mivabe, K.. The flora of the Kurile Islands. Memoirs of the Boston Society of
natural history. Vol. IV. 1886-1893. Pag. 203 27.-).

n. K n. VIdcnsk.ScUli. Skr . 7. Hieklie. naturvidensk oi; matliem. Afil. Vlll. 1. 8

I det følgende skal jeg fremføre et Par Eksempler paa geologisk set endnu
yngre Floraer end Sibiriens, nemlig Floraerne paa et Par alluviale Dannelser i for-
skellige Klimater, saaledes Skallingen paa Jyllands Vestkyst og Sandy Point paa
St. Croix.

Sandy Point og Skallingen. Sandy Point er ikke alene geologisk set en ny
Dannelse, men idelmindste delvis er det ogsaa historisk set en ny Dannelse, idet
der den Dag idag finder Landdannelse Sted her. Men det er samtidig en Dannelse,
hvis Jordbund er ganske forskellig fra Jordbunden i det Land, ved hvis Kyst den er
opstaaet; og da det tillige, fra et planteklimatisk Standpunkt set, er et forsvindende
lille Omraade, vilde det ikke undre, om vi her traf en anden procentisk Fordeling
af Livsformerne end den, der ellers er den herskende i Vestindiens Fanerofyt-Klima.
Men Forholdet er ikke saaledes; selv et saa lille, saa nyt og fra Omgivelserne saa
forskelligartet Omraade som Sandy Point følger den Lov, at Livsformernes procen-
liske Fordeling hos de indvandrede Arter bestemmes af Klimaet og er et Udtryk
for dette. Jeg har tidligere givet det biologiske Spektrum for St. Thomas og St. Jan.
Dette Spektrum gælder for Dansk Vestindien i det Hele taget, og med dette skal
derfor Sandy Points biologiske Spektrum sammenlignes. Tab. 3 No. 1 — 2 viser
Forholdet mellem de to Spektra hvad Livsform-Rækkerne angaar, nemlig Fanero-
fyter, Chamæfyter, Hemikryptofyter, Kryptofyter og Therofyter.

Til Sammenligning med Forholdet hos Floraen paa en til Sandy Point til-
svarende, alluvial Dannelse, men i et helt andet Klima nemlig Hemikryptofyt-
klimaet, har jeg vedføjet de tilsvarende Tal for Skallingen og for Danmarks
Flora som Helhed. Naar jeg har valgt Skallingen til Sammenligning med Sandy
Point ligger det i, at dels er Skallingen baade i Beliggenhed i Forhold til del Land,

Tab. 3.

1. .St. Thomas & St. Jan

2. Sandy Point

3. Krauses Lagune

4. Oanmark

5. Skallingen

6. Langlig

7. Nordby Marsk (Fanø)

8. La Camargue (Rlioncs Munding).

9. Normalspeklrura

Arts-
tal

Arternes procentiske For-
deling paa Livsformerne.

904

1084

105

108

233

400

61
74

7
1
3

II)
47

12
IG
28
3
7
9
G
8
9

.32

14
5
3
18
2G
20
17
39
13

hvoilia del har faaet sin Flora, og med Hensyn til Jordbundens Arl en af de Lo-
kaliteter i Danmark, som mesi minder om Sandy Point; og blandt de Egne, som
der her kan være Tale om, er desuden Skallingen en af dem, hvis Flora jeg kender
bedst; ikke alene foreligger der hos andre, især hos Warming ', Oplysninger om en
Del Arter, som er fundne paa Skallingen, men jeg har tillige selv flere Gange,
navnlig i 1896, undersøgt Skallingen for at faa en saa vidt mulig fuldstændig For-
tegnelse over dens Arter af Blomsterplanter. Resultatet heraf er en Planteliste paa
105 Arter, med det i Tab. 3 No. 5 viste P'orhold mellem Livsform-Rækkerne. Et
Blik paa Tabellen viser, at hvad Livsformernes Statistik angaar, staar Skallingen
i samme Forhold til Danmark som Sandy Point til Dansk Vestindien i det Hele
taget; i Skallingens Flora er Hemikryptofyterne dominerende ligesom i Danmark i
det Hete taget, og paa Sandy Point er Fanerofylerne dominerende ligesom i Dansk
Vestindien. Det er værd at lægge Mærke til, at skønt den bevoksede Del af Skal-
lingen neppe er stort større end den bevoksede Del af Sandy Point, saa har Skal-
lingen dog liere Arter end Sandy Point.

Vi skal nu se lidt nærmere paa Arternes Fordeling paa Livsform-Klasserne.
I Tal). 4 har jeg givet de biologiske Spektra for Sandy Point og Dansk Vestindien.
Som man vil se, er der givet to Spektra for Sandy Point, og Grunden hertil er føl-
gende. Spektret No. 2 er det Spektrum, som Sandy Points Arter viser, naar man
opfører dem med den Livsform, under hvilken de i Almindelighed optræder i Dansk
Vestindien, og det er dette Spektrum, der først maa sammenlignes med Dansk Vest-
indiens almindelige Spektrum, naar man vil se, hvorledes Spektret for ny Jords
P^lora her forholder sig til Spektret for gammel Jords Flora; som man ser, er Over-
ensstemmelsen saa stor, som der kan forlanges af en Flora paa kun 80 Arter. Men
Spektret No. 3 er ligeledes meget oplysende. Sagen er nemlig den, at paa Grund
af de ugunstige Jordbundsforhold paa Sandy Point, de samme ugunstige Forhold,

Tal). 4.

1. St. Tlloiiias & St. Jiill

2. Sandy l'oint

3. Sandy l'oint (særegent)

4. Danmark

5. Langlig

G. Sliallingen

7. Normalspektrum

' Se: Botanisk Tidsskrift, 19. Bind, S. 73-80; 25. Bind, S. 72— 74.

Arternes procentiske Fordeling paa Livsformerne.

Arts-
tal

904

—

2,5

—

2,5

—

7,5

62,5

17,5

—

1084

—

108

—

105

—

400

hvorved Jyllands Klitlerræn adskiller sig fra de tilgrænsende Egne, er Sandy Points
Fanerofylvegetalion en Dværgvegetation i Sammenligning med Fanerofytvegetationen
i Dansk Vestindien i del Hele laget; dette hidrører imidlertid ikke blot fra, at de
lavere Fanerofyter har Overvægten i Indvandringen, der ses af Spektrum No. 2 i
Tab. 4, men tillige fra, at mange af de Fanerofyter, som ellers hører til de højere
og højeste Fanerofyter, paa Grund af Kaarene paa Sandy Point trykkes ned i en
lavere Livsform-Klasse; alle de paa Sandy Point fundne Arter, som ellers er Meso-
fanerofyter, er paa Sandy Point Mikrofanerofyter; og de fleste af de paa Sandy
Point fundne Arter, som ellers er Mikrofanerofyter, er her Nanofanerofyter; tages
der nu Hensyn til denne, den virkelige Størrelse faaes det i Tab. 4 No. 3 givne
Spektrum, der foruden at vise det udprægede Fanerofytklima tillige er et slaaende
Udtryk for dels Klimaets forholdsvis ringe Nedbør som Helhed dels for de uheldige
af Klimaet gennem Jordbunden betingede specielle Kaar paa Sandy Point.

Der er her Grund til at dvæle lidt ved Spørgsmaalet om Jordbundens Betyd-
ning for det biologiske Spektrums Udseende, et Spørgsmaal som Wauming (1. c,
Side 24 — 25) har fremdraget som en Indvending mod min biogeografiske Belragt-
ningsmaade idet han skriver: „Der er sluttelig endnu en Faktor, som har Indflydelse
paa Forholdet mellem Livsformer, nemlig Jordbunden. Man ser dette saa smukt
i Brasiliens Campos (Savanner), hvor Dalene med deres Vandløb ere dækkede med
Skov, det øvrige med Campos (Savanne), og Grænsen mellem Skov og Savanne kan
trækkes aldeles skarpt, som med en Snor. Forholdet mellem Fanerofyter og Hemi-
kryplofyter er helt forskelligt i Skov og i Campos; der er omtrent dobbelt saa
mange af de første som af de sidste i Skovene, men omvendt dobbelt saa mange
af de sidste som af de første i Campos til, Trods for, at Klimaet absolut er det
samme — samme Nedbør, samme Varme, samme Vind; kun een Faktor er for-
skellig: Jordbunden. Jo mere forskelligartede Vækstpladser der findes i el Land,
desto slørre bliver Arlslallet; jo mere ensartede de ere, desto ringere. El Sletteland
har ikke saa stor Udsigt til Rigdom som et Bjærgland".

Det sidst citerede Stykke, det om Arts-Rigdommen og Arts-Fattigdommen
eftersom et Omraades Vækstpladser er forskelligartede eller ensartede, indeholder
Intel om, at det større eller mindre Arlslal forandrer det, som det her kommer an
paa, nemlig del procenliske Forhold mellem Livsformerne; det kan derfor ganske
lades ude af Betragtning. Hvad Jordbundens Beskaffenhed angaar anfører Warming
som Støtte for sin Opfattelse Forholdene i Brasiliens Campos, „hvor Dalene med
deres Vandløb ere dækkede med Skov, det øvrige med Campos (Savanne)" skønt
„Klimaet absolut er det samme"; „kun een Faktor er forskellig: Jordbunden". Hvis
dette er en Indvending mod mit Forsøg paa at anvende Livsformernes Slalistik
som el biologisk Udtryk for Klimaet, maa Warming have overseet, at han udtryk-
kelig selv fremhæver, at Klimaet er ganske del samme de lo Steder: Skov og Sa-
vanne; thi da Klimaet er det samme, er del jo hverken Skovenes Flora alene eller
Savannens Flora alene, som skal anvendes ved Fremstillingen af vedkommende
Landsdels biologiske Spektrum, men Floraen paa begge Steder og i det hele taget

Floraen fra del Omraade, som har samme Varme og Nedbor, o: samtne Hydroterm-
figur; og saa faar vi et biologisk Spektrum, der netop giver et udmærket Billede
af Lagoa Santa's Planteklima; i Skoven er Fanerol'yterne talrige som i alle Trope-
skove; men paa Savannen findes en Mængde Arier, som ikke er Fanerofyter; og
derfor bliver Resultatet en for et tropisk Omraade forholdsvis lav Fanerofyt-Procent,
som man efter Stedets Hydrotermfigur netop jiaa Forhaand ogsaa maatle vente,
hvis min Betraglningsmaade er rigtig.

Man vil maaske dog nu spørge: men hvorledes forholder det sig da med det
Faktum, al kun Dalene med deres Vandløb er dækket af Skov'? Man vil maaske
med Warming sige, at dette jo dog maa bero paa Jordbundens forskellige Beskaffen-
hed. Heil bortseet fra, at dette Spørgsmaal kun vedrører Formationslæren, Gruppe-
ringen af Arterne indenfor et givet Klima, og ikke Planteklimaet, der ikke bygger
paa en enkelt Formations men samtlige Formationers Arter, saaledes som jeg lige
foran har omtalt, saa kunde det maaske dog af anden Grund lønne sig at se noget
nærmere paa dette Jordbundsspørgsmaal.

Jordbund og Jordbund kan opfattes forskelligt; i foreliggende Tilfælde er det
nemlig ikke Jordbundens Art, det kommer an paa, men Jordbundens Indhold af
Vand, der hidrører fra Nedbøren, som jo netop er den ene af de to vigtigste Fak-
torer, som betinger et Lands Planteklima; naar der derfor er en saa stor Forskel
mellem Vegetationen i Dalene og paa den højere liggende Savanne, ligger dette
ikke i Jordbunden i snevrere Forstand men i Jordbunden af Nedbørens Størrelse,
o: af Klimaet, bestemte Fugtighedsgrad. Da nu Nedbøren er tbrholdsvis ringe,
bliver de højere Partier, hvorfra Vandet løber bort. saa tørre, at en rig Fanerofyt-
vegetation ikke kan trives, medens derimod Dalene, hvortil Vandel strømmer, bliver
saa fugtige, at de kan fostre en saadan Vegetation. At det forholder sig saaledes,
ser man deraf, at saa snart Nedbøren er større, saaledes som Tilfældet er mange
andre Steder i Brasilien, dækkes ogsaa de højere Partier af Landet med Skov; og
hvis Lagoa Santa's Nedbør steg betydeligt, vilde sikkert ogsaa Savannen forandres
til Skov — skønt Jordbunden var den samme, kun en eneste Faktor var forandret:
Nedbøren.

Warming synes her at være inde paa det samme, som førte til et væsentligt
Feilgreb hos Schimper, idet han adskilte edafiske og klimatiske Formationer. Om
den Del af Brasilien, hvorom der her er Tale, siger Schimper nemlig, at Skoven op-
træder som edafisk (o: af Jordbunden betinget) Formation, Savannen derimod som
klimatisk Formation'; men da man med lige saa megen Ret kan sige det modsatte,
er det bedst ikke at sige nogen af Delene. Sagen er, at enhver Formation betinges
først og fremmest af Temperaturen og af den fra Nedbøren stammende Fugtighed ;
Nedbøren fordeles forskelligt i Jorden efter dennes Art og Overfladeforhold , og
deraf følger Formationsleddelingen; her kan man derfor ikke sige, at den ene For-
mation er edafisk, den anden ikke; derimod kan man vel sige, at de alle er edafiske,

' ScHiMi'Kii, A. F. W. , Pflanzengeographie auf physiologischer Grundlage. Jena 18'J8. Karte 3:
„Grasfluren als klimatische Formationen, Gehölze als edaphische Formationen".

de belinges af Jordbundens Fugtighed; men da denne er betinget af Nedbøren, er
del naturligst al sige, at de alle er klimatiske; alt hvad der kan fores tilbage til
Klimaet bør efter min Mening udtrykkes paa denne Maade.

Medens Jordbundens Overfladeforhold og fysiske BeskafTenhed har en stor
Betydning for den fra Nedbøren stammende Fugtigheds Fordeling og derigennem
for Ariernes Fordeling i det Omraade, paa hvis samlede Artstal del biologiske
Spektrum dannes, synes Jordbundens kemiske Sammensætning derimod at have
kun ringe eller saa godt som ingen Betydning med Hensyn til de forskellige Lo-
kaliteters biologiske Spektrum. Paa Sandy Point's af Koralsand dannede Jordbund
er indvandret en Flora, der viser væsentlig samme biologiske Spektrum som den
Flora, der dækker de danske vestindiske Øers Klippebund; paa Sandy Point synker
Regnvandet hurtigt ned i Jorden, fra Klippeterrænet strømmer det hurtigt bort;
hvorvidt den mere dværgagtige Vegetation paa Sandy Point hidrører fra, at Regn-
vandet her hurtigere unddrages Planterne end paa Klippebunden, eller det hidrører
fra, at Jordbunden paa Sandy Point er fattigere paa Næring, skal jeg iøvrigt ikke
forsøge at afgøre; det har heller ingen Betydning for det foreliggende Spørgsmaal,
da det biologiske Spektrum i det væsentlige er ens begge Steder.

Hvad det biologiske Spektrum for den paa de alluviale Dannelser ved beskyttet
Kyst indvandrede Flora angaar, da er Forholdet ligeledes dette, at den ny Jords
P'lora viser det Spektrum, som er karakteristisk for den Flora, der da^kker den
gamle Jord i samme Klima. Som Eksempler har jeg i Tab. 3 vedføjet de paa-
gældende Tal for Krauses Lagune paa St. Croix og for Marsken Syd for
Nordby paa Fanø; da Artstallet er saa lille, er der ingen Grund til at give
mere detaillerede Spektra; det som det kommer an paa er det, at Floraen omkring
Krauses Lagune viser Fanerofylklima-Spektrum, medens Floraen paa Marsken Syd
for Nordby viser Hemikryptofytkiima-Spektrum; og den høje Procent henholdsvis
af Fanerofyter og Hemikryptofyter svarer saa godt, man kan forlange, til de samme
Livsformers Procent i den tilgrænsende Flora.

Da det kan være af Interesse at se det samme Forhold belyst ogsaa ved Eks-
empler fra andre Planteklimater end de nævnte, har jeg i Tab. 3 No. 8 givet et
Eksempel fra et Therofytklima-Omraade, nemlig fra de alluviale Dannelser ved
Rhones Munding, fra la Camargue; som floristisk Grundlag har jeg her benyttet
den af Flahault og Combres givne Planteliste ^ Den paa la Camargue's Alluvial-
bund indvandrede Flora viser det samme Therofytklima-Spektrum, som findes i
den tilgrænsende Del af Sydfrankrig og i Middelhavslandene i det Hele taget.

Sandy Point, Krauses Lagune, la Camargue, Fanø's Marsk og Skal-
lingen afgiver saaledes Bevis for, at et Lands geologiske Alder ikke
har nogen mærkbar Indflydelse paa Floraens biologiske Spektrum.

Det ligger i Sagens Natur, at det er den eller de Livsformer, hvis Procent i
det biologiske Spektrum i særlig Grad gaar op over de tilsvarende Tal i Normal-

' Flahault, Ch., et Comishes, I'., Sur la flore de la Camargue et des alluvions du Rhone. Bull. Soc.
Bot. Fr. Tome 41, 1894, p. 37.

spektret, der i forreste Linie karakteriserer vedkommende Lands Planteklima; de
danner Karakteristikens positive Side; men del er ikke uden Betydning ogsaa al se
paa Karakleristikens negative Side, hvorved jeg forstaar de Livsformer, hvis Pro-
cent gaar ned under Normalspektrets Tal; disse, de vigende Livsformer, trykkes
nemlig ikke i samme Grad, efterhaanden som man gaar fra det ene Klima til det
andet. Gaar man fra det sydlige Mellemeuropa mod Nord, forsvinder vel efter-
haanden Fanerofy terne, men de forskellige Livsformer forsvinder ikke lige hurtigt;
forst forsvinder de større, Mega-Mesofanerofyterne, sidst de smaa, Nanofanerofylerne.

Resultatet af Klimaforandringen, idet man gaar fra Syd mod Nord, er for alle
vigende Livsformer ganske vist det samme, nemlig at deres Tal formindskes, men
de Mellemaarsager, de Kombinationer af Forhold, gennem hvilke dette sker, kan
være forskellige for de forskellige Livsformer saa vel som for de forskellige Plante-
arter. Jeg vil som Eksempler vælge Fanerofyterne og Tlierofyterne. En stor
Mængde Therofyter, der meget vel kan vokse paa Kulturbund i Danmark, for-
trænges hurtigt, naar Naturen overlades til sig selv, fordi de ikke kan hævde sig i
Konkurrencen med de andre Livsformer, især Hemikryptofyterne, som straks tager
den af Kulturen forladte Jord i Besiddelse. Paa saadanne specielle Lokaliteter,
hvor Forholdene er saaledes, at Hemikryptofyterne kun langsomt tager en i For-
vejen blottet Bund i Besiddelse, og især hvor Nydannelse af en mindre gunstig
Bund finder Sted, f. Eks. i vore Klitegne, vedbliver der længe at være Pladser,
hvor Therofyterne ikke møder den overmægtige Konkurrence, og af den Grund vil
der her i Regelen findes et forholdsvis stort Antal Therofyter; hvis man derfor
danner et biologisk Spektrum for saadanne specielle Lokaliteters Flora, vil dette
Spektrum i Regelen vise en forholdsvis høj Therofyt-Procent. Sammenlignet med
Spektret for det tilgrænsende Land afspejler denne høje Therofyt-Procent saaledes
til en vis Grad Stedets Natur. Tallene i Tab. 4 No. 4—6 er i denne Henseende
oplysende.

Paa en anden Maade forholder mange Fanerofyter sig. Der er ligeledes mange
fremmede Fanerofyter, som kan vokse paa Kulturbund hos os, men som ikke kan
hævde sig i Konkurrencen med Hemikryptofyterne; men medens Therofyterne for-
svinder, delvis fordi der overhovedet ikke levnes dem Plads, forsvinder F^anerofyterne
vistnok paa Grund af, at de ikke kan staa sig mod den indvandrende Hemikryp-
tofyt- Vegetation i Konkurrencen om Næringen og, maaske særlig, i Konkurrencen
om Vandet. Saadanne Fanerofyter vil i Regelen heller ikke kunne vokse der, hvor
der ingen Konkurrence er, hvis Jordbunden er tør og fattig og Fordampningen
stærk, f. Eks. i vort Klitterræn. Noget lignende gælder vore egne, i Landet hjemme-
hørende Fanerofyter; en Del af dem kan ganske vist hævde sig i Konkurrencen
med Hemikryptofyterne og andre Livsformer og tilsidst gaa af med Sejren, hvor
Forholdene er nogenlunde gunstige, men kan ikke hævde sig i Konkurrencen, hvor
Forholdene er mindre gunstige; og hvor Kaarene er i særlig Grad ugunstige, kan
de maaske overhovedet slet ikke trives, selv om der ingen Konkurrence er, f. Eks.
i vore Klitter. Dette medfører, at naar man fra den sydlige Del af Hemikryptofyt-

I..

Omraadet gaar mod Nord, ser man ikke alene, at Fanerofyterne eflerhaanden af-
tager, men de, der bliver, trænges mere og mere tilbage fra de ugunstige Loka-
liteter, og tilsidst findes de kun som ubetydelige Rester paa de gunstigste Lokaliteter.
I Vestindiens Fanerofytklima er der paa Sandy Point 74 Procent Fanero-
fyter; ved Nordgrænsen af den gamle Verdens Therofytklima er i la Camargue
endnu 10 Procent Fanerofyter; herfra aftager de yderligere mod Nord, stærkere for
de ugunstige end for de gunstige Lokaliteters Vedkommende; i Hollands Klima
er der endnu en ikke ubetydelig Fanerofylvegetation i Klitdalene: i de jydske Klitter
er Fanerofytvegetationen meget sparsom; [)aa Skallingen er Fanerofyt-Procenten
gaaet ned til een Procent, repræsenteret af en eneste Art, en Nanofanerofyt, Salix
repens, der endda her nærmest er trykket ned til at være Chamæfyt.

Vi skal nu tilsidst gennem et Par Eksempler se, hvorledes Forholdet er paa
ikke alene geologisk men ogsaa historisk set ny Jord, om der ikke dog her skulde
være et andet Forhold mellem Livsformerne, saa at den nylig indvandrede Flora
viste et andet biologisk Spektrum end den gamle Jords Flora. Man kan her under-
søge den indvandrede Flora paa den ved Kunst for Vegetation blottede Bund, og
man kan undersøge Forholdet paa den fra Naturens Haand ny Bund. Jeg vil tage
det sidste Forhold først og vælge et Eksempel fra et Hemikryplofylklima-Omraade,
nemlig de nydannede Øer i Hjalmaren, og et Eksempel fra et Fanerofyt-
klima-Omraade, nemlig Krakalau; det bliver saaledes tillige Eksempler paa
højst forskellig Jordbund.

De nydauuede Øer i Hjälmaren. Ved Kanalgravning sænkedes i 1882 Hjal-
marens Vandspejl 1,2 M. og i 188() yderligere 0,7 M. ; derved fremkom en Række ny
Øer, idet en Række større og mindre Grunde tørlagdes; desuden fremkom der store
Strækninger nyt Land langs gamle Kyster; vi har saaledes her store Strækninger
ny Jord, som kun er 27 Aar gammel, og paa hvilken der efterhaanden er ind-
vandret et ikke ringe Antal Planter. Denne ny Flora er i Aarenes Løb bleven
undersøgt flere Gange, nemlig 1886 af Callmé', 1892 af Grevillius^ og endelig
1903 — 1904 af Birger'; man er saaledes endog i Stand til at følge Udviklingen fra
Begyndelsen. I den sidst nævnte Afhandling ' har Birger taget Hensyn til de fore-
gaaende Arbejder og sammenstillet Resultaterne af samtlige Undersøgelser; og dette
floristiske Materiale har jeg her benyttet, idet jeg har bestemt Livsformen hos de

' Callmk, Alfr. , Om de nybildade Hjälmaröarnas vegetation. Bili. t. K. Vet. Akad. Handl. 12
(1887) III. No. 7.

- Grevili.uis, A.Y., Om vegetationsforhållandena på de genom siinkningarna 1882 og 1880 nybildade
skaren i Hjalmaren. Bot. Not. 1893.
— Om vegetationens utveckling på de nybildade Hjälmaröarna. Bih. t. K. Vet. Akad.

Handl. 18 (1893) III. No. 0.
■' BinoRH, Sk.i.im, Dc 1882 — 1886 nybildade Hjiilmarüainas vegetation. Arkiv for Botanik. Bd. 5.
1905— 1900.

enkelte Arter og derpaa fremstillet det biologiske Spektrum for den Flora, der
fandtes henholdsvis 1886, 1892, 1903—1904, og for alle de iagttagne Arter tilsammen.
Ved Begrænsningen af Floraen har jeg fulgt de samme Regler som ved Fremstil-
lingen af det biologiske Spektrum for Danmarks Floras Vedkommende. Tab. 5
viser Arternes Fordeling i de 5 Livsform-Rækker; No. 1 — 3 viser paa denne Maade
de nydannede Øers biologiske Spektrum henholdsvis 1886, 1892 og 1903 — 04; No. 4
viser det biologiske Spektrum for samtlige paa de nydannede Øer fundne Arter;

Tab. 5.

Arts-
tal

Arternes procentiske Fordeling
paa Livsformerne

91
140
148
192

228
1084

12
17
14

5
3

•

3
3

4
3

46
6ä
53
51

20
18
IG

—4

—1904

ny Land langs gamle

1. De ny Øer i Hjälmaren 1886

2. — - — 1892

3. — - — 1903-

4. _ . _ :

5. De ny Oer i Hjälmaren -
Øers'Kyster 1886—1904

6. Danmark

at Arfslallet her er betydelig større end ved den sidste Undersøgelse kommer af,
at en Del af de ved den første eller de to første Undersøgelser iagttagne Arter ikke
blev fundet senere, hvad enten dette nu i det enkelte Tilfælde hidrører fra, at Arten
igen er forsvundet fra Øerne, eller at den er bleven overset ved den senere Under-
søgelse. I No. 5 har jeg givet det biologiske Spektrum for alle de Arter, som er
fundne dels paa de nydannede Øer dels paa det nydannede Land langs Kysterne
af de i Forvejen tilstedeværende Øer. Til Sammenligning har jeg endelig i No. 6
vedføjet det biologiske Spektrum for Danmarks Flora.

Alle disse Spektra stemmer overens deri, at de viser Hemikryptofytklima-
Spektrets høje Hemikryptofyt-Procent, hvoraf ses, at det biologiske Spektrum for
selv ganske ny Jords Flora beherskes af de samme Love, som medfører, at det
biologiske Spektrum i det Hele taget bliver et træffende Udtryk for Planteklimaet.
Allerede 4 Aar efter de ny Øers Fremkomst, medens der endnu kun er indvandret
91 Arter, viser denne ny Flora et biologisk Spektrum med 46 Procent Hemikryp-
tofyter, der i 1892 og 1903 — 4 stiger henholdsvis til 52 og 53 Procent. Angaaende
Hemikryptofyterne er der saaledes intet usædvanligt at bemærke; det samme er
Tilfældet med Chamæfyt- og Kryptofyt-Procenten. Derimod er der i de 18 Aar, fra
1886 — 1904, foregaaet en noget større Svingning i Fanerofyt- og Therofyt-Procenten.
Jeg kan i Øjeblikket ikke give det biologiske Spektrum for Hjälmaren-Egnens F"lora
i det Hele taget og har saaledes ikke de bestemte Tal, med hvilke Tallene i de ny

D. K. I). Vidensk. Sclsk. SUr.. 7. H:i'like, n.nlurvidensk. og ni:illiem. Afd. VIII. 1. 9

Øers Spektrum nærmest skal sammenlignes; men det maa i hvert Tilfælde betragtes
som sikkert, at de ny Øers Spektrum i 1.S86 har en højere Tlierofyt-Proceut end
den omgivende Egns Flora; de enaarige Planter synes jo ogsaa altid at være for-
holdsvis rigt repræsenterede blandt de Arter, som idetmindste indenfor Hemikryp-
tofyt-Klimaet, først indfinder sig paa ny Jord og paa den ved Kultur blottede Jord;
man ser ogsaa, at den forholdsvis høje Therofyt-Procent snart synker, først til 13
i 1892 og endelig til 9 i 1904. Det skal dog her bemærkes, at selv om det er
sikkert nok, at Therofyterne er rigere repræsenterede i Floraen paa ny Jord i de

Tab. 6.

Arts-
tal

Arternes procentiske Fordelin

g paa

Livsformerne.

1. De ny Øer i Hjalmaien 1886

—

2. — — ' 1892

140

—

3. — — 1903-4...

148

—

4. — — 188(5-1904

192

—

5. De ny Øer + de ny Dele af gamle
Øer 1886—1904

228

'52

6. Danmark

1084

—

(0,1)

allerførste Aar end senere, saa er Forholdet dog saaledes, at man i Regelen faar et
for stærkt Indtryk af Therofyternes Overvægt; undersøger man nemlig mere ind-
gaaende en Mark, der, efter at have været dyrket i en Aarrække, er bleven overladt
til sig selv, vil man vel finde, at Therofyterne er forholdsvis rigt repræsenterede,
men dog ikke saa rigt, som det ved første Øjekast syntes; thi ser man nøjere efter,
viser det sig, at en Mængde ved første Undersøgelse oversete Arter, som hører til
andre Livsformer, især Hemikryptofyter, allerede er tilstede omend kun som Kim-
planter; og efter faa Aars Forløb har disse andre Livsformer baade hvad Artstal
og Individmængde angaar trængt Therofyterne tilbage til den mere beskedne Plads,
som de indtager i Hemikryptofytklimaet, naar Naturen i længere Tid er overladt
til sig selv.

Hvad Fanerofyterne angaar begynder de i 1886 med 9 Procent men stiger i
de følgende Aar, saaledes til 12 Procent i 1892 og til 17 Procent i 1903—4; skønt jeg,
som sagt, ikke kan give det biologiske Spektrum for Hjälmaren-Egnens Flora som
Helhed, maa jeg dog antage, at den Fanerofyt-Procent, som de ny Øers Flora viser
i 1903 — 4, er højere end den tilsvarende Procent i den omgivende Egns Flora.
Tages der Hensyn til ikke blot de ny Øer men tillige til det ny, langs de gamle
Øers Kyster dannede Lands Flora, viser Spektret kun 13 Procent Fanerofyter, som
maaske ikke er langt fra det normale i en Skovegn i Mellemsverige. Men hvorledes

det nu end forholder sig hermed, saa stanr det fast, som her er Hovedsagen, at
den paa de ny Øer i Hjillmaren indvandrede Flora visei- Hemikryp-
tofytklima-Spektrum ligesom det omgivende Lands Flora. Tab. 6 viser
yderligere, at Arternes Fordeling i Livsform-Klasserne er i saa god Overensstemmelse
med det almindelige Heniikryptofytklima-Spektrum, som kan forlanges af en Flora
med det foreliggende Arlstal.

Krakatau. Ved en Undersøgelse over det biologiske Spektrum for den paa
historisk set ny Jord indvandrede Flora egner Vulkanøen Krakatau i Sundastrædet
sig i særlig Grad til Sammenligning med de ny Hjalmaren-Øer; thi Krakataus nu-
værende Jordbund opstod omtrent samtidig med Hjalmaren-Øerne, nemlig i 1883,
og ligesom disses ny Flora er Krakatau's ny F^lora bleven undersøgt og beskrevet tre
Gange, saaledes 1886 af Treub', 1897 af Penzig^ og 1906 af Ernste For 1883 var
Krakatau dækket af uigennemtrængelig Urskov, en Fanerofytvegetation; i Sommeren
1883, navnlig ved det vældige Udbrud 26. — 27. August, tilintetgjordes denne Vege-

Tal). 7.

.\rtstal

.\rU'nies procentiske For-
deling paa Livsformerne.

1. Krakatau 1886

49-

59
70

78
77
55

7
6
6
4
15

20
14

8
10

7
6
3
3

2. — 1897 . .

3. — 1906

4. — 1886—1906

5. Edam

6
19

tation ganske, idet de to Trediedele af Øen forsvandt i Havet og den tilbagestaaende
Trediedel dækkedes af et gennemsnitligt 30 M. tykt Lag af glødende Slagger og
Aske. Den efter 1883 paa Krakatau indvandrede Flora er betydelig fattigere end
den paa Hjalmaren-Øerne, idet der i 1886 kun fandtes 15, i 1897 kun 49 og i 1906
kun 73 Arter; ialt er der fundet 90 Arter. I Tab. 7 ses, hvorledes disse Arter for-
deler sig i de 5 Livsform-Rækker, og i Tab. 8 ses de mere detaillerede biologiske
Spektra, nemlig Arternes Fordeling i Livsform-Klasserne; man vil heraf se, at Flo-
raen lige fra Begyndelsen af viser Fanero fy tklima-Spektru m i Overens-
stemmelse med det udprægede Fanerofytklima, i hvilket Krakatau befinder sig; de
bestemte Tal for dette Klimas biologiske Spektrum kan jeg ganske vist ikke give;
det er hverken for Javas eller Sumatras Vedkommende muligt i Øjeblikket; men

' Treub, M., Notice sur la nouvelle Flore de Krakatau. Annales du Jardin bot. de Buitenzorg, 7, 1888.
- Pknzig, O., Die Fortschritte der Flora des Krakatau. Sammest. 1902.

^ EnN.ST, A., Die neue Flora der Vulkaninsel Krakatau. Vierteljahrschrift d. naturf. Gcsellsch. in
Zürich. 1907.

at vi her har Fanerofytklima-Spektrum, er sikkert nok; for dog at have et om end
kun meget lille Omraades Flora til Sammenligning, har jeg bestemt Livsformen
hos de paa den lille, ud for Batavia liggende Koralø Edam fundne Arter, ialt 74,
hvis biologiske Spektrum ses i Tab. 7 No. 5 og Tab. 8 No. 5; Overensstemmelsen
mellem de biologiske Spektra af denne Ø's og Krakataus Flora er saa stor, som

Tab. 8.

Artstal

Arternes procentiske Fordelin

ïpaa

Livst

ormerne.

1. Krakatau 1886 . .

15
49
7.3
90
74

—

4
3
3

20
23

18
14

13
16
30
27

26
27
29
29
20

7
6
6
4
15

20
14

8
10

7
6
3
3
4

—

2. — 1897

3. - 1906

4. — 1886—1906 .

5. Edam

kan forlanges af et saa ringe Artstal , og til Trods for at baade Jordbundens Alder
og Beskaffenhed er højst forskellig. Ligesom de foregaaende Eksempler viser da
dette, hvilken Betydning det biologiske Spektrum har som biologisk Udtryk for Kli-
maet, som Middel til at give en trælTende Karakteristik af Planteklimaet.

Foruden ny Jord i strengeste Forstand, Jord, som aldrig før har baaret Planter,
fremkommer der jo ogsaa gennem Kulturens Indvirken ny Jord, o: en Bund paa
hvilken der bliver Plads for en mere eller mindre rig Indvandring af ny Planter.
Det er imidlertid saaledes, at hverken den ene eller den anden Form for ny Jord
har nogen Indflydelse paa det biologiske Spektrums Udseende. For den fra Na-
turens Haand ny Jords Vedkommende er dette vist i det foregaaende. Her skal
jeg nu til Slutning dvæle et Øjeblik ved den gennem Kulturen frembragte ny Jord.

Ved enhver Benyttelse af Jorden forstyrres i større eller mindre Grad den
relative Ligevægt i den oprindelige Flora; Afgræsning, Skovbrug, Høslet, Agerbrug
og Havebrug er de vigtigste Kulturindgreb, hvorved den oprindelige Ligevægt for-
styrres, og de betegner forskellige Grader af Indgrebets Størrelse. Jordens Benyttelse
alene til Græsning frembringer saaledes en betydelig Forstyrrelse af den oprindelige
Ligevægtstilstand, men den er dog kun ringe i Sammenligning med det Indgreb,
som Jordens Benyttelse til Agerbrug og Havebrug medfører; thi herved udryddes
ganske eller dog næsten ganske de oprindelige Plantearter paa det benyttede Terræn.
Allevegne hvor Kulturen griber ind finder da en Ligevægtsforstyrrelse Sted , hvad
enten denne nu er stor eller lille, og der skabes derved ny Jord i ovennævnte

Forstand; der skabes Betingelser for en Indvandring af ny Arter og for en ny Kamp
om Pladsen, saa snart Mennesket ikke længere holder Kiiltiirtilstanden vedlige. At
det biologiske Spektrum forandres, naar Mennesket udrydder den oprindelige Flora
og dyrker ganske bestemte Kulturplanli'r i Stedet, er en Selvfølge og kan ikke an-
vendes som en Indvending mod et videnskabeligt System. Hvis derimod det bio-
logiske Spektrum af den Flora, som efterhaanden atter tager den af Kulturen for-
ladte Hund i Besiddelse, i Almindelighed blev et andet end den oprindelige Floras
biologiske Spektrum, da vilde dette her idetmindste være en Ulempe for min Be-
tragtningsmaade; men al Sagen heller ikke forholder sig saaledes, behøver jeg neppe
at give specielle Eksempler paa, da det jo netop er en Iagttagelse, som man saa
godt som overalt har Lejlighed til at gøre, at saa snart et Stykke Jord gaar ud af
Kultur og overlades til sig selv, begynder der en Forandring af Vegetationen i den
Retning, at denne mere og mere, efter som Tiden gaar, nærmer sig til de Forhold,
der herskede for Kulturen greb ind: det oprindelige biologiske Spektrum
vender atter tilbage paa den af Kulturen opgivne Bund. Lader man i en
Skovegn i Danmark, f. Eks. i Nordsjælland, et Stykke Mark gaa ud af Kultur, ind-
finder sig efterhaanden de samme Planter, ogsaa Fanerofyter som Eg, Bøg, El, osv.,
som før Menneskets Indgreb dannede Vegetationen, og som den Dag idag danner
Vegetationen paa de Steder, der, som Skov, Overdrev, osv., har været mindre udsat
for Kulturens Indgreb. Lader man paa samme Maade i Vestjyllands Hedeegne en
Mark gaa ud af Kullur, indvandrer i Løbet af faa Aar igen Hedens Planter. Paa
samme Maade gaar del andre Steder og i andre Klimater; lader man i Vestindien
et Stykke Land gaa ud af Kultur, bliver det i Løbet af ganske faa Aar tæt be-
vokset med en Fanerofytvegetation ligesom de Pletter, der aldrig har været under
Kullur.

Det undrer mig derfor, al Warming heri kan se en Indvending mod Anvende-
ligheden af mil System eller blot en Vanskelighed for dette, da del jo Ivertimod
paa den smukkeste Maade bekræfter Rigtigheden af min Belragtningsmaade.

Jeg har tidligere omtalt, hvorledes det forholder sig med den Indvending, som
Waumino mener der ligger i den Mulighed, at et Lands Skove, f. Eks. Danmarks,
blev udryddede. Efter at have omtalt det tænkte Eksempel: Udryddelsen af Dan-
marks c. 6 " 11 Skov, skriver Warming (I.e., Side 23): »Ganske paa samme Maade
gaar det andensteds, selv i Tropelande; „naar Menneskene forlade Blumenau (i Syd
Brasilien), siger A. Møller, vilde Landet efter 10 Aars Forløb helt være bevokset
med Træ", og samme Skæbne spaar H. Colla Tyskland i Løbet af 100 Aar, hvis
Mennesket forsvandt». Der maa til disse Eksempler dog tilføjes, at omkring Blu-
menau vil Landet ikke alene blive bevokset med Træer, Fanerofyter, men denne
Fanerofytvegetation vil tillige efterhaanden blive sammensat af et forholdsvis stort
Antal Arter, saaledes som Skoven i det Hele laget er i denne Egn; og den Flora,
som lager den af Kulluren forladte Bund i Besiddelse, vil vise og viser Fanerofyt-
klima-Spektrum, som Floraen i vedkommende Egu som Helhed ogsaa viser nu. Og
angaaende Eksemplet fra Tyskland, maa der ligeledes her tilføjes, at den Vegetation

af Træer, hvormed, efter Cotta's Mening, Tyskland om 100 Aar vilde blive bevokset,
hvis Mennesket forsvandt, kun vilde indeholde forholdsvis faa Arter af Fanerofyter,
ganske som Tysklands Skove nu, men derimod en stor Mængde Arter af Hemi-
kryptofyter og andre Livsformer; den vilde i det Hele taget vise udpræget Hemi-
kryptofytklima-Spektrum, hvilket jo netop ogsaa nu er Tilfældet med Floraen paa
de store Strækninger, som altid har været og endnu er bevokset med Skov i Tysk-
land. Disse Eksempler indeholder saaledes ikke blot ingen Indvending mod An-
vendeligheden af mit System , men de illustrerer endog paa en slaaendé Maade
dettes Betydning, idet de viser, at Mennesket er ude af Stand til, selv ved de væl-
digste Indgreb, at frembringe en varig Forandring af Naturen saaledes, at denne
Forandring kan holde sig uden Kulturens Hjælp; det viser sig tværtimod allevegne,
at naar Kulturens Indgreb ophører, vender Naturen, hvad Arternes Fordeling paa
Livsformerne angaar, atter tilbage til det oprindelige Forhold, saa at det Land, der
overlades til sig selv, efter kortere eller længere Tids Forlob atter viser det biologiske
Spektrum, som svarer til vedkommende Lands Planteklima, og som det viste før
Landet kom under Kultur. Og ikke alene dette; men det vil endog falde Mennesket
vanskeligt at forandre væsentlig et Lands, ikke at tale om en hel Klimazones, bio-
logiske Spektrum ; saa længe der f. Eks. i Danmark eksisterer Landevejsrabatter,
Grøftekanter, stejle Bakkeskraaninger og andre lignende Lokaliteter, som ikke be-
handles med Plov eller Spade, vil den Flora, som her i Danmark holder sig ved
egen Hjælp, vise Hemikryptofytklima-Spektrum i Overensstemmelse med det fak-
tiske, tilstedeværende Klima; og det tilsvarende gælder for alle andre Klimaters
Lande.

Medens Kulturen let kan komme til at vende op og ned paa de Resultater,
som den floristiske Plantegeografi, der bygger paa Systematikens Arter, er kommen
til , vil det derimod falde den vanskeligt i det væsentlige at forandre det paa Livs-
formernes Statistik grundede biologiske Spektrum. Og selv om det fantastiske skete,
at ethvert vildtvoksende Planteindivid blev udryddet af Verden, saa at der af Planter
kun eksisterede Individer af Kulturplanter, vilde ogsaa disse Planter alene, idet-
mindste i Hovedtrækkene, give en Forestilling om de eksisterende Planteklimaters
Art. Man huske blot, at i det tropiske P'anerofytklima trives der forholdsvis
langt flere fanerofyte Nytteplanter end i Hemikryptofytklimaet, i hvilket der om-
vendt trives forholdsvis langt flere hemikryptofyte Nytteplanter end i Troperne.
Saa længe der vokser Planter paa Jorden, vil vi derfor i Planternes Livsform og det
paa denne grundede biologiske Spektrum have et Udtryk for Planteklimaet.

UNDERSØGELSER

OVKIi

DE I FORSKELLIGE PLANTEDELE
INDEHOLDTE KALKSALTE

BILLE GRAM

D. K(!i.. Oanskk ViDKNSK. Sklsk. Skiiii- ii;n. 7. R.kkkk, natuuvidensk. og mathem. Afu. VIII. 2

-►■<'»£S:J«c>-

KØBENHAVN

BIANCO LUNOS BOGTUVKKERI
1909

I. Oversigt over tidligere Undersøgelser.

IJen almindelige Forekomst af Kalksalte, som aflejres i forskellige Plante-
organer, har tidligt været iagttaget, og de udskilte Saltes Art og Forhold har været
Genstand for talrige Undersøgelser. Disse har været rent kemiske, som Scheeles
Undersøgelse over Rabarber'), ved hvilken S. paaviste, at Krystalstjernerne i Ra-
barber ikke bestod af Kalciumsulfat, som kort forinden angivet af Model, men af
Kalciunioxalat, og S. beviser dette gennem en Række af Reaktioner, som endnu er
fuldkommen fyldestgørende. En anden Gruppe Undersøgelser er foretaget ad mi-
kroskopisk Vej, støttet til mikrokemiske Reaktioner og fysiologiske Forsøg, ligesom
der ogsaa foreligger Arbejder, som udelukkende eller væsenligst er baseret paa teo-
retiske Overvejelser over foreliggende Arbejder.

Liebig") ansaa de organiske Syrer som Mellemled ved Kulsyrens Overgang til
Sukker; efter iltrigere Syrer følger iltfattigere. Dannelsen af Sukker, Stivelse, Pektin
og Gummi foregaar ikke paa en Gang af Kulsyrens Kulstof og Vandets Bestanddele,
men der dannes Forbindelser, som bliver fattigere paa Ilt og rigere paa Brint. Uden
Salte af organiske Syrer kan Sukker, Stivelse, Gummi eller Pektin ikke dannes.

Sanio^) hævder, at det udskilte Salt er et Afl"aldsprodukt, som dannes ved Om-
sætninger i Planten og derefter ophobes og uskadeliggøres. Stoffet er Kalciuni-
oxalat, der ikke genopløses. Holzner ') antager, at Oxalsyren, som han forudsætter
at være et Produkt af Æggehvidestofferne, har den Opgave at binde Basen af det
optagne Kalciumfosfat og -sulfat. Sachs'') tiltræder Holzners Anskuelse og fører
den videre, idet han sætter Aflejringen af Kalciunioxalat ved Bastbundter i For-
bindelse med det fra Jorden optagne Kalciumsulfat, som dekomponeres af Oxalsyre
for at den frigjorte Svovlsyre kan finde Anvendelse ved Dannelsen af Sirørenes
svovlholdige Æggehvidestoffer. Fraset Hypotesen om Oxalsyrens Oprindelse fra
ÆggehvidestolTerne, finder Emmerling"), at de kemiske Undersøgelser, som han har
anstillet til Belysning af Oxalsyrens Forhold over for Kaliumnitrat — uden og ved
samtidig Tilstedeværelse af Salpetersyre — og over for Kalciumnitrat, bekræfter
Holzners Anskuelser, hvilke han supplerer paa følgende Maade: Det er en af Oxal-
syrens og maaske andre organiske Syrers Funktioner at frigøre Mineralsyrerne af
de optagne Salte, for at Syrerne derved kan bringes i en for Assimilationen —
navnlig for Dannelsen af Æggehvidestofferne — skikket Form; de samtidigt dannede

10"

74 4

Salle af organiske Syrer bliver at betragte som Biprodukter. De Vries') benægler
Rigligheden af Holzners Anskuelser og finder, al Oxalsyrens Betydning ligger deri,
al den binder det for Planten skadelige Overskud af Kalk, som den bringer i uop-
løselig Form. Kalciumoxalalet er derfor al anse som el AlTaldsslof.

AÈ*) betragter Oxalalet som et Reservenæringsstof; han mener, at det om
Efteraaret føres fra Bladene ind i Grenene og i følgende Foraar ud i de unge
Blade, hvor det opløses for derpaa at tjene som Næringsstof. Paa Foranledning
af et Arbejde af A. Beier''), som slutter, at MineralstolTerne rimeligvis lige som
F'orraadsstoiTer allerede om Efteraaret ophobes i Træet for først at opløses i fol-
gende Foraar, og at Kalken overvejende er bundet til Æblesyre, bemærker Aè, at
der foreligger flere positive Beviser for, at Druserne bestaar af Kalciumoxalat.

Schimper"') fremsætter afvigende Anskuelser om Kalkens Forhold i Planterne.
Dens Betydning er mindst en dobbelt, idet den danner opløselige Forbindelser med
Kulhydraterne og derved gør disse transportable, dernæst tjener den til at tilføre
Planterne assimilerbart Kvælstof, Svovl og Fosfor. Medens Kalken i første Tilfælde
ikke kan erstattes af nogen anden Base, kan dette finde Sled med Saltene af de
anførte uorganiske Syrer.

Hvad Kalciumoxalalet angaar, fremsætter Schimper den Anskuelse, at Saltet
forekommer i Planten som primært, sekundært og tertiæ>rl Kalciumoxalat*. Som
primært betegner S. det Salt, der dannes under Bladets Udvikling, uafhængigt af
Lysets Paavirkning, som sekundært det, der dannes i del udvoxede Blad under
Indvirkning af Lys, medens det tertiære dannes om Efteraaret, naar Bladet tømmes.
Naar det almindelig har været antaget, al Kalciumoxalalet efter at være dannet i
Løvbladet ikke mere undergaar nogen Forandring, men forbliver paa det Sted,
hvor det er udskilt, hævder S. i Modsætning hertil, at Løvbladenes Kalciumoxalat
i Virkeligheden er næsten lige saa bevægeligt som Assimilationsproduklerne, om
end Hensigten med dets Vandring er en ganske anden. Opløsning af allerede
dannet Kalciumoxalat og Gendannelse (Udkrystallisation?) paa andet Sted foregaar
ingenlunde sjældent i Løvbladet; i saadanne Tilfælde optræder Saltet først i grønne
Celler og ophobes senere i særlige Celler i Nærheden af Karslrenge. En Vandring
fra Bladene og ind i Stammen niaa ogsaa antages at foregaa. Naar det ligeledes
almindelig har været antaget, at Kalken bl. a. tjener til at binde og uskadeliggøre
den giftige Oxalsyre, betegnes denne Antagelse som en Hypotese, der savner et-
hvert Grundlag, og som S. i Overensstemmelse med De Vries maa betegne som
uholdbar. S. mener meget mere at maatle slutte, al Oxalsyren kun dannes for at
binde den ubenyttede Kalk, og at den i saa Henseende kan erstattes af andre Syrer.

Kort Tid efter fremkom Kohls Bog''), der bl. a. og væsenligst omhandler de
samme to Emner: Kalciumoxalatets Forhold i Planlen og Kalkens Betydning for
Transporten af Kulhydraterne. Skønt det ikke er vanskeligt at paavise Uoverens-
stemmelser om Enkeltheder i Schimpers og Kohls Anskuelser, er Ligheden mellem

■ S. bruger i Flæng Udtrykkene primært, sekundært, tertiært Kalciumoxalat og den primære, se-
kundære og tertiære Kalciumoxalatdannelse.

5 75

de lo Arbejder i Stoffet, dels Behandling og de fundne Resultater paafnidende. Man
sammenligne f. Ex. de to Forfatteres Karakteristik af Kalciumoxalatet.

Kohl skelner mellem primært, sekundært, tertiært og kvarlært Kalciumoxalat.
Del primære Salt udkrystalliserer under Planteorganernes Udvikling; del dannes
uafhængigt af Lys og Klorofyl og paavirkes ikke af Transpirationen, hvilket allerede
fremgaar deraf, at de paagældende Organer endnu er fuldstændigt indesluttede i
Knop. Saltets Mængde plejer at forøges, indtil Organet har opnaaet sin typiske
Form. Aflejringsstederne er mindre bestemte og regelmæssige, end Tilfældet er for
det sekundære og tertiære Oxalat, om end en perifer Lejring i Organerne sj'nes at
være fremherskende.

Det sekundære Oxalat er allerede efter sin Oprindelse væsenligt forskelligt
fra det primære. Det dannes i den klorofylholdige Celle, og alene i denne. Dets
Dannelse er afhængig af Lys og Klorofyl, men uafhængig af Assimilationen (støttet
til Schimpers Kulturforsøg i kulsyrefri Luft med Pelargonium zonale, hvorefter de
nydannede Blade ikke viste Indhold af Stivelse, men lige saa store og lige saa
mange Kalkdruser som de under normale Forhold udviklede Blade). Det findes
derfor i Bladkødet og i den klorofylholdige Del af Bladstilk og Stængel. Undertiden
udskilles det i Palissadecellerne {Jugions regia, Citrus vulgar, o. a.), undertiden alene
i Svampparenkyniet (Datura Stramonium, Atropa Belladonna, Hyoscyamus niger o.a.),
eller i begge Vævformer [Althaea officinalis). Det sekundære Oxalat skyldes det fra
Jorden optagne Kalciumnitrat, -sulfat og -fosfat. Uden rigelig Tilførsel af disse
Salte kommer Oxalatet ikke til Udvikling og efter at være dannet kan det, naar
Tilførselen af de anførte uorganiske Syrers Kalksalte udebliver, genopløses. Dette
Oxalat er lige saa bevægeligt i Planterne som Assimilationsproduklerne, idel det
dog bliver et Spørgsmaal, om Saltet vandrer paa den Maade, at det holdes i Op-
løsning — f. Ex. ved Æggehvidestof — eller efter en Dekomposition.

Det tertiære Oxalat aflejres paa Steder, hvor der finder en rigelig Cellulose-
dannelse Sted. Dets Dannelse sættes i Forbindelse med Transporten af Kulhydrater,
idet K., efter de Kendsgerninger han har konstateret, maa antage, at Stivelse van-
drer i F^orm af en organisk Kalkforbindelse, — som Kalk-Dextrose, — Glykose eller
mulig andre Kalkforbindelser. I saa Tilfælde maa der, overalt hvor Dextrose eller
Glykose forbruges til Dannelse af Cellulose eller Stivelse, blive Kalk disponibel, som
med Oxalsyre giver Kalciumoxalat. Som en mindre sandsynlig Aarsag til Kalcium-
oxalatets Forekomst ved Bastbundter anføres Holzners og Sachs' Tydning. Det ter-
tiære Salt forekommer som Regel i rigelig Mængde i Knolde, Rodstokke, Rødder
og Kimblade.

Det kvartære Kalciumoxalat dannes om Efteraaret, naar Bladene tømmes og
skyldes Dobbeltdekomposition mellem Kalksalle og Kaliumoxalat.

I Modsætning til Schimper har Kohl altsaa 4 Former (?) af Oxalat, idel Kohl
betegner det Oxalat, som dannes i Nærheden af tykvæggede Celler (Bast, Sten-
celler og Kollenkym) som tertiært, medens Schimpers tertiære Salt bliver Kohls
kvartære.

76 6

Om Maaden, hvorpaa Kalciumoxalatet vandrer, er der, for saa vidt, Uover-
ensslemnielse, som Kohl tager Afstand fra Schimpers Angivelse herom, uden at det
klart fremgaar, hvorledes K. selv tænker sig Forholdet. K. angiver saaledes, at
Saltet vandrer, idet det holdes i Opløsning ved Æggehvidestof eller efter en De-
komposition, ligesom det andet Steds anføres, at Saltet efter at være dekomponeret
ikke behøver at gendannes, idet Komponenterne kan forbruges, Kalken f. Ex. ved
Binding til Kulhydrat.

De Schimper-Kohlske Anskuelser om Kalciumoxalatets Forhold i Planterne
kritiseredes af Hansen'-) og af Wehmer''' "); denne Sidstes Kritik baseredes paa
el experimentelt Arbejde, til hvilket han benyttede samme Undersogelsesobjekter,
som Schimper havde anvendt. W. foretog saaledes Undersøgelser af Blade af
Symphoricarpiis , Alnus og Crataegus. Materialet indsamledes paa forskelligt Tids-
punkt, fra 30. Maj til 5. Oktober. Den mikroskopiske Undersøgelse af Bladene
foretoges efter Indlægning i Kloral , for de ældre Blades Vedkommende efter nogle
Dages forudgaaende Indlægning i Alkohol, som var mættet med Svovlsyrling. W.
formaaede ikke at paavise Forhold , som tydede paa en Vandring af Oxalatet fra
Bladene ind i Stængel og Stamme, ej heller kunde han iagttage, at de tidligt i
Mesofyllel dannede Druser genopløstes og senere aflejredes i Krystalkammerceller
ved Nerverne. Aflejringen paa dette Sted begynder tvært imod paa et tidligt Ud-
viklingstrin af Bladet, medens en samtidig Forringelse i Antal af Druserne i Maske-
neltet mellem Nerverne ikke lod sig paavise. Ved senere Kulturforsøg i Nærings-
vædske, som W. foretog med Grene af Symphoricarpiis, fandt han, at de nydannede
Knopper efter længere Tids Væxt var rige paa Oxalat, medens Druserækkerne i
den sekundære Bark tilsyneladende var uforandrede.

Naar Schimper fastholder, at Kalciumoxalatet opløses og vandrer uden Sønder-
deling, bemærker W. iøvrigt hertil, at selv under den Forudsætning, at Oxalatet
kun opløstes som Spor, kunde dette under de givne Forhold belinge betydelige
Virkninger, lige som del endvidere vides, at andre Salte, der er saa godt som uop-
løselige i Vand, kan opløses i visse Saltoplosninger uden Sønderdeling, og at man
foruden med denne Kendsgerning maa regne med Muligheden af, al selv svagere
organiske Syrer ved Massevirkning kan bevirke en Sønderdeling af Oxalatet. Del
bør — mener W. — ikke betvivles, at Forhold af denne Art vil kunne faa Ind-
flydelse, men i del overvejende Antal Tilfælde vil man ikke være berettiget til at
tillægge disse F^orhold nævneværdig Betydning. For de foreliggende Undersøgelses-
objekters Vedkommende pointeres yderligere Schimpers lagttagelsesfejl, idet Wehmer
hævder, at hans egne Iagttagelser absolut ikke taler for en Vandring af Oxalatet.

G. Kraus'*) anser ligesom Aè Kalciumoxalatet som et Næringsstof, der om Efter-
aaret føres fra Bladene ind i Grenene og i følgende Foraar ud i de unge Blade tor
at bruges som Næringsstof.

K. henviser til de gennem en Aarrække fremkomne Arbejder, efter hvilke
Kalciumoxalatet skal være opløseligt og genoptages i Slofskiftet. Naar Lærebøgerne
til Trods herfor „vedvarende og haardnakket" betegner Kalciumoxalatet som et

7 77

Affaldsstof (Exkret), mener han, at Grunden hertil maa søges i Beskaffenheden af de
fremsatte Beviser, væsentlig mikrokemiske Reaktioner, som i de bedst begrundede
Tilfælde har været forelaget under saadanne Forhold, al Resultalerne ingen Rolle
spiller som Bevis for Saltels Forhold til Stofskifteprocesserne i det Store. Det ene
afgørende Bevis, som den kvantitative kemiske Analyse afgiver, har stadig manglet.

Kraus har da bearbejdet et Forsøgsmateriale, som af nogle vedføjede Daleringer
ses at være samlet gennem en Aarrække, el af Forsøgene er dateret 1888 — samme
Aar Schimpers Afhandling fremkom. En paatænkt Anvendelse af Rhizoma Rhei
som Forsøgsmateriale maatle opgives, idel Indvindingen af brugbart Oxalat umulig-
gjordes ved Rabarberens andre Bestanddele. Selv efter længere Tids forudgaaende
Behandling med Vand dannede de med Saltsyre vundne Udtræk lykflydende, brune
Opløsninger, af hvilke Oxalatel ikke lod sig fremstille i saa ren Tilstand, som ud-
krævedes for dels Titrering. Ulige bedre anvendelig fandtes Riiinex obtusifolius,
ihvorvel Rodstokkens Indhold af Oxalat er ringere. I Modsætning til Rabarber er
Rodstokkenes Væxt mere ensartet, hvad der bedre tillader en indbyrdes Sammen-
ligning mellem de i Arbejde tagne Portioner. Krystaldruserne ligger i Bark, Marv-
slraaler og Marv, de er saa ensartet udviklet og fordelt, al de øjensynligt har samme
Oprindelse og Bestemmelse. Del første Forsøg foreloges med Rodstokke af paa Fri-
land voxende Planter og paa den Maade, at Mængden af Kalciumoxalat bestemtes
i saa vidt muligt ensartet udviklede Rodstokke; dels i Slutningen af April, forinden
Planlen havde dannet blomsterbærende Skud, dels i Slutningen af Maj, efter Ud-
vikling af blomsterbærende Skud. Resultalerne var dog ikke tilfredsstillende, idet
Rodstokkene kun viste en meget lille Formindskelse af Oxalatmængden ; kun i el
enkelt Tilfælde, hvor der anvendtes kraftige og oxalatrige Rodstokke fandtes der en
tydelig Forskel.

Del fremgik dog af Forsøgene, at det var ønskeligt, at søge Oxalalels Forhold
yderligere belyst under gunstigere Vilkaar. I den Hensigt foretoges Bestemmelser
af Oxalatmængden i Rodstokke, som efter Opgravningen underkastedes Mørkekullur,
dels i rent Sand, dels i Sand, hvortil der var sal en rigelig Mængde Kridt. Til
Vanding benyttedes henholdsvis destilleret Vand og Ledningsvand. Del analytiske
Resultal fandtes overordentlig tilfredsstillende.

De to Kulturrækker viste:

1) Ved Mørkekultur aftager Tørstofniængden meget betydeligt.

2) Indeholder Substratet Kalk, er der ved Siden af den stærke Formindskelse
af Forraadsstoffer enten ingen Formindskelse af Oxalatel eller en Forøgelse
af dette.

3) Dyrkes Planten i kalkfrit Substrat, aftager Oxalatmængden meget betydeligt,
under visse Forhold ganske som de øvrige Forraadsstoffer.

4) Oxalatel har under disse Forhold aabenbart overtaget den Opgave al af-
give den for Udviklingen af de overjordiske Dele nødvendige Kalk.

5) Man kan slutte, at Kalciumoxalatet ogsaa under Plantens normale Udvikling

efter Behov genopløses og inddrages i Stofskiftet, o: Oxalatet kan om for-
nødent atter blive Forraadsstof.

Mørkekulturer med Rumex obtusifoUus fra 10. Novbr. 1890 — 13. Jan. 1891.

De opgravede Rodstokke udsøgtes parvis, muligst ens udviklede. Den ene
Halvdel tørres efter Fastsættelse af Volumen og benyttes til Kontrolforsøg. Den
anden Halvdel plantes i Urtepotte og underkastes Mørkekultur. En Del dyrkes i
rent Sand og vandes med destilleret Vand, en anden Del i rent Sand med Tilsæt-
ning af en rigelig Mængde Kridt, ti! Vanding benyttes Ledningsvand.

II.

III.

IV.

a) Ivontrol

b) F"orsøg

a) Kontrol

b) Forsog

a) Kontrol

b) Forsøg

a) Kontrol

b) Forsøg

a) Kontrol

b) Forsøg

01).jekt
2 Rødder*

1 Rod

A. Kalkfri Sandkultur.
Længde Volumen Torstof I Cor

\ 1,5 Cm. tyk /

1 Rod

som II

1 Rod

omlr. lingertvk

Cm.

12 og 15

13 og 20
36,0

3(i,0

41,0
30,0
27,0
23.0

l2smaafinger-(18 oS H
j tykke Rødder ^ is og 10

Ccm.

40
.30

36
40
32
36

30
30

9,0
8,83
11,6

12,03

15,0
13,69
13,6
11,84
10,55
8,77

0,36

0,221

0,88

0,30

0,41

0,342

0,42

0,33

0,35

0,292

Tab i

Vægt

pC.I.

38,6

21,05

16,59

21,43

19,43

Oxalat

0,286
0,313
0,410

0,338

0,454
0,399
0,370
0,315
0,315
0,29(.)

I Ccm.

0,0114

0,007

0,0136

0,0097

0,0127

0,009

0,0116

0,0089

0,0105

(),(X)93

Tørstof
pCt.

3,18

3,53

3,03
2,71
3.0

Tørstofniængden er gennemsnitlig aftaget 22,87 pCt., Oxalatet 26,1 pCt.

B. Kalkholdig Sandkultur.

I. a) Kontrol

1 j.

Objekt

1 Rod

lY a 1 tv 11

Længde
Cm.
13,5

u m 1 g <J

Volumen
Ccm.

1 <t 11 11 IV u

Torstof

8,6

t 1 1 1.4 1 .

1 Ccm.

0,39

Tab i
Vægt
pCt.

Oxalat

0,250

I Ccm.

0,011

Tørstof
pCI.

2,91

b) Forsog

fingertyk

15,0

7,10

0,26

33,34

0,290

0,013

II. a) Kontrol

Rod

13,5

42,0

12,3

0,29

0,432

0,0103

3,51

b) Forsøg

tommel-
Hngertyk

1.3,5

37,0

10,83

0,29

0,389

0,0105

II. a) Kontrol

Rod

1.5,5

25,0

8,6

0,34

0,275

0,011

3,2

b) Forsøg

fingertyk

14,5

38,0

13,04

0,343

0,306

0,009

IV. a) Kontrol )

1 som fore-

r 11,0

27,0

10,1

0,39

0,260

0,0096

2,5

b) Forsøg J

1 gaaende

1 15,0

28,0

6,08

0,217

44,36

0,330

0,0118

K. meddeler dernæst Resultaterne af en Række Bestemmelser, som han har
foretaget af Kalciumoxalat i Bark af forskellige Træer og Buske. For Enkeltheder
herom maa der henvises til Afhandlingen; men i Tilslutning til denne Del af Ar-
bejdet knyttes der Meddelelser om Forsøg, hvis Maal er at paavise, at Mængden af
Kalciumoxalat undergaar en Forandring ved Væxtperiodens Indtræden, og saaledes
at der ogsaa her foregaar en Opløsning og et Forbrug af Oxalatet. Ved Forsøgene
foretoges Sammenligning mellem:

* 3: Rodstokke.

9 79

1) Grene, som toges under Hvileperioden med Grene fra Væxtperiodens
Indtræden.

2) Grene som toges paa forskellig Tid efter Væxtperiodens Indtræden.

3) Grene fra Hvileperioden sammenlignet med Grene, der havde været under-
kastet Mørkekultur.

De til Analyse — Kontrol og Forsøg — udvalgte Grene udsøgtes parvis
saa ensartet tykke og lange, at de havde næsten nøjagtig samme Vægt.

Som fælles Resultat af disse Forsøg fremgik, at Harkens Indhold af Kalcium-
oxalat aftog i Mængde ved Spiringen. Kvantitativt kan denne Formindskelse i de
specielle Tilfælde være forskellig. I et og andet Tilfælde kunde en Formindskelse
overhovedet ikke paavises; det anføres, at dette Forhold mulig blot er et Tilfælde.

Oxalatformindskelsen foregaar efterliaanden i Løbet af Foraarel. Kirsebærgre-

ncne tabte f. Ex. fra Begyndelsen indtil Midten af April 16,25, indtil Begyndelsen af

Maj ;52,9 pCt. Tilsvarende og end mere udpræget var Forholdet for Kihes saiiyiiineiiin.

Intet viser tydeligere end denne Oxalalets gradvise Aftagen, at dets Opløsning slaar

i Forhold til Vegetationsprocessen. Det anføres paa ny, at ogsaa disse Forsøg viser

Uholdbarheden af Betegnelsen Exkret for Kalciumoxalat, selv om der ikke er Tale

om en Bevægelighed og Udnyttelse som ved de organiske ForraadsstolTer (Stivelse,

Sukker, Inulin o. s. v.).

Forsegs Tabeller:

I. Fla a rige Grene fra Hvileperioden og Fora ar 1.S8S — 89.

1) Ribes Gordonianiim. 30 Grm. Slof indeholdt.

i December . 0,(580 = 2,26 "o Oxalat ^af Tørstof),

i April 0,567 = 1,87 -

Forskel 0,113 = 16,62 -

2) Quercus macranthera. 22 Grm. Stof indeholdt:

27. Februar 0,340 --= 1,55 "/u Oxalat,

31. Maj 0,194 = 0,89 -

Forskel 0,146 = 42,94 -

3) Pyrus Malus. 20 Grm. Slof indeholdl:

16. December . . 0,475 = 2,35 "/o Oxalat,

27. April 0,417 = 2,05 -

Forskel 0,068 = 12,10 -

4) Lnnicera latarica. 25 Grm. Stof indeholdl:

16. December . . 0,583 = 2,32 "u Oxalat.

27. April 0,453 = 1,80 -

Forskel 0,130 = 22,30 -

5) Ribes aureiun. 15 Grm. Stof indeholdt:

2. November.. 0,291 = 1,94 "/u Oxalat,

26. April 0,260 = 1,73 -

Forskel 0,031 = 11,69 -

o. K. I) ViilensU Selsk. Skr., 7. Kiekke. milurvideiisk. oj! matheiii. Afd. VIII. 2. H

80 10

6) Ribes Grossularia. 15 Grin. Slof indeholdt:

1. November . . . 0,275 = 1,82 »/o Oxalat,

26. April 0,216 = 1,44 -

Forskel 0,059 =21,45 -

II. E t a a r i g e Grene, F o r a a r e t 1890.

1) Prunus avium. 15 Grin. Stof indeholdt:

4. April 1,058 = 7,05 »/o

17. April 0,540*

Forskel 48,77 "lo.

2) Pijrus Malus. 24 Grin. Stof indeholdt :

17. Januar 1,426

3. April 0,713

17. April 0,713

Forskel 50 »/n.

3) Prunus Cerasus. 14 Grm. Stof indeholdt:

3. April 0,677

17. April 0,567

5. Maj 0,454

Forskel 16,25 til 32,94 "io.

4) Ulmus campestris. 24 Grm. Slof indeholdt:

17. Januar 0,990

3. April 0,659

17. April 0,659

Forskel 34,03 "/o.

5) Rosa canina. 17 Grm. Stof indeholdt:

17. Januar 0,664

3. April 0,578

17. April 0,572

5. Maj 0,475

Forskel 28,46 "/o.

6) Ribes sanguineum (angivet i lige Mængder):

14. Marts 0,820

3. April 0,712

16. April 0,507

Forskel 13,17 til 38,17 >.

7) Ribes saxatile (Ingen Mængdeangivelse):

14. Marts 0,491

3. April 0,469

16. April 0,410

Forskel 4,48 til 16,50 "/o

* Tabellernes uensartede AfTaltelse er Originalens.

11 V 81

8) Ribes caiicasiciim. 27,5 Giiii. Slof indeholdt:

14. Marts 0,945

1(5. April 0,642

Forskel 32,07 "/«.

9) Ved tilsvarende Analyser af Coryhis fandtes mellem 17. Januar og

17. April en Forskel af 12 "/o; ved Crataegus O.xijacaiitha i samme
Tidsrum en Forskel af 59,28 "'(i; medens der ved Pijrns communis
ikke fandtes nogen Forskel.

III. Grene fra Hvileperioden sammenlignet med tilsvarende, som
var drevet frem ved Mor ke kult ur.

1) Lonicera tatarica. c. 150 Grm. Slof;

1,52 »/(I, efter Kultur 1,36 0/0.

2) Salix laurina. 30 Grm. Stof:

0,34"/(., efter Kullur 0,307 "/o.

3) Pyriis communis. 20 Grm. Slof:

0,637 "/(I, efter Kultur 0,432 »/o.

4) Popnlus alba. (Stofmængde?).

Der fandtes ingen Forskel.

Til Belj'sning af Spørgsmaalel om Oxalalels Vandring er begrænset lil de
tyndere Grene eller tillige omfatter Allejringerne i Stamme- og ældre Grenbark,
undersøgte K. tillige Stammebark af Hestekastanie, Robinie og Tandbladel Løn; i
alle Tilfælde undersøgtes Bark af to Træer. Der fandtes følgende Formindskelse af
Oxalatmængden:

For Hestekastanie:

1) S.April 1,577, 15. April 1,468, Forskel 6,92 "/o

2) — 1,36 — 1,144 — 15,8 -
For Robinie :

1) 8. April 0,185, 26. April 0,164, Forskel 13,95 "/o

2) — 0,162 — 0,140 — 13,34 -
For Tandbladet Løn:

1) 7. April 0,756, 15. April 0,648, Forskel 14,28 "/o

2) — 0,648 — 0,562 — 13,12 -

Idet Kraus henviser til Sanios Karakteristik af det i Planten udskilte Kalcium-
oxalats Reaktioner, anfører han, at det senere er blevet antaget som almen Kends-
gerning, at Saltet ikke paavirkes af Eddike- og Plantesyrer; men efter de fundne
Forhold, hvorved K. har paavist en Oplø.selighed af indtil c. 60 "/o af Saltet, maa
man simpelt hen erkende Kalciumoxalatets Opløselighed i Cellen. Opløsningen
maa skyldes Cellesaften og sandsynligvis organiske Syrer og disses Salte. Det bliver

11*

82 ■ ' 12

(la Sporgsmnak'l, om Oxalalets Oplosning kan foregaa i en saa l'orlyndel Opløsning
af Syrerne og Sallene, som Cellesaften repræsenterer.

Til Undersøgelse af dette Forhold foretoges Forsøg for kvalitativt og kvanti-
lativl at finde Kalciumoxalatets OpløselighcdsforhoUl i Opløsninger af organiske
Syrer og Salte af dem. Der anvendtes amorf Kalciunioxalat (Handelsvare) og Kry-
staller, som fremstilledes ved Slemning af pulveriseret Kvillajabark. Som Opløs-
ningsmidler anvendtes Vui, '/lou og Vkhio "/o's Opløsninger af Vin-, Citron-, Æble-,
Fumar-, Malein- og Druesyre, samt '/i(i"'(i's Opløsninger af Kalium- og Ammonium-
citrat og surt Ammoniumtarlrat. Det fandtes ved disse Forsøg, at der opløstes [Calcium,
idet Filtraterne gav skyede Udskilninger efter Tilsætning af Ammoniumoxalat. Der
foretoges derefter kvantitative Bestemmelser af den Mængde Kalcium, som opløstes
ved Behandling af 1 Grm. amorf Kalciunioxalat med '/iii"ii's Syreopløsninger. Efter
liere Dages Henstand under jævnlig Omrystning samledes Kalciumoxalalet paa vejet
Filter. Den tilbageblevne Mængde var efter Behandling med Vinsyre (),9f^'2, med Citron-
syre 0,985, med Maleinsyre 0,9802, med Fumarsyre 0,9945 og med Druesyre 0,9906 Grm.

De af Kvillajabark fremstillede Krystaller forholdt sig paa lignende Maade.
Efter en liere Uger vedvarende Behandling med 'jio"/u's Citronsyreopløsning viste
Krystallerne stærk Korrosion. Der henvises endvidere til de i Naturen paaviste til-
svarende Forhold, som er angivet af Pfeffer, der har iagttaget Spor af Opløsning
af Krystallerne i Lupinens Kimblade, samt Tschiuchs Iagttagelser over Korrosion
og Opløsning af Krystalstjernerne 1 Begonieblade og i spirende Frø. — Det er
derfor muligt, at Kalciumoxalatets Opløsning skyldes de organiske Syrer, om det
end ingenlunde er bevist. At Opløseligheden er saa skarpt begrænset til Vegeta-
tionsperioden, mener K. er betinget af Transpirationen , som bevirker, al Vævene
i denne Periode udsættes for en kraftig Gennemskylning.

Amar") hai- foretaget Forsøg med forskellige Caryophyllaceer. De først ud-
viklede Blade af Planter fra Friland indeholdt Kalciunioxalat; naai- Planlerne der-
efter dyrkedes i kalkfri NæM'ingsvædske, viste de senere dannede Blade intet Oxalat,
medens de ældre Blades Oxalatkryslaller ikke opløstes. A. mener, at Kalciumoxa-
lalet er et AlTaldsslof, som skyldes det fra Jorden optagne Kalciumnitrat, der ikke
assimileres fuldstændigt. Overskudel af Kalcium udskilles som unyttigt Oxalat. I
Modsætning til flere andre Forfallere mener A. endvidere al maalle slutte, al
Kalciumoxalalet snarere dannes for at befri Planlen for Kalcium end for Oxalsyre.

Gennem kemiske Analyser er det oplyst, al Oxalatel forekommer i Planlerne
saa vel i opløselig som i uopløselig Form. Del fremgaar bl. a. af Berlhelots og
Andrés Undersøgelser''). I Mesembnjanthemum cnjstallinum fandt de Oxalatel ganske
overvejende til Stede i opløselig Form, medens del i Amarantus caudatus overvej-
ende og i alle Organer forekom som uopløseligt Sall.

Iagttagelser over Kalciunioxalat, som opløses under Frø og Frugters Spiring,
foreligger fra Pfeffer'«), Tschirch'") og Czapek ä").

T,schircb anfører lige som Pfeffer Skærmplanlefrugter, samt Mandler og Frø
af Myristica siirinamensis; han angiver tillige Korrosion og Opløsning af Krystal-

13 83

stjerner i ßegonieblade; veci :it lu-nla-i^j^es paa fugligl Sand bragles Bladtiic til al
danne Rødder, derefter anbragtes de i kalkl'ri NæringsvædsUe.

Czapek bar ved sine Undersøgelser over Mælkesaftljeliolderne iios Convolmilaceer
fundet, at de ikke fuichnodne Frø indebolder el rigeligt Antal Oxalaldruser, medens
de modne Frø indeholder langt færre eller slet ingen Druser; i de modne Frø paa-
visle ban tillige Druser, som kendeligt var blevet mindre. Om del Kalksall, som
i stor Mængde forekommer i Ørkenpianlers Bark, udtaler Jonsson^'), at del, saa
vidt kemiske Reaktioner kunde oplyse, i Hovedsagen var Kalciumoxalat, men al
Tilstedeværelsen af andre Salte ikke er udelukket.

I el tidligere Arbejde-'-) bar jeg vist, al Kryslalsljernerne og til Dels Globoiderne
i Fennikeifruglernes Proleinkorn beslaar af Kalcium- (og sandsynligvis ogsaa af
Magnium-) malal og -succinal; medens Oxalat kun findes som Spor. Paavisningen
skete ad kemisk Vej, i del Kalcium- og Magniumsallenc opløstes. Blysaltene ud-
fældedes, hvorefter de ved Behandling med Svovlbrinte vundne Oplosninger af de
fri Syrer anvendtes til en flække Identilelsprover. Ved mikrokemiske Reaktioner
fandtes Forholdet al v;ere almindeligt for Skærmplanlefrugler. Det er herigennem
bevist, at Kryslalsljernerne i disse Frugters Frøhvide ikke, som angivet af Pfeffer,
er Kalciumoxalat.

I del Følgende skal der gives en Oversigt over moderne Fysiologers Stilling til
disse Spørgsmaal.

Pfeffer-') har, Pag. 4f>(): I den turgescente Plante forekommer de organiske
Syrer i opløst Tilstand, bortset fra den Oxalsyre, som er udskilt i Form af Kalcium-
oxalat. Dette Salt findes ikke i alle Planler, men er dog almindelig udbredt og
kan findes i saa stor Mængde, at det udgør 50 "o, hos visse Kaktus indtil 80 ".n af
Tørstoffet (Schleiden). Kun undtagelsesvis forekommer Krystaller af Magniumoxalal,
Kalciumtartrat og -citrat. Syrerne tjener som jilastisk Materiale, til Forøgelse af
Turgor, i Opløsnings- og Neutralisalionsojemed o.s. v. ; yderligere formaar Planlerne
ved stærk Syreproduklion al fortrænge eller dræbe Konkurrenter, medens de sure
Safter og de stikkende Naale af Kalciumoxalat afgiver en vis Beskyttelse mod Dyr.
At organiske Syrer er anvendelige som Næringsstof, fremgaar af Ernæringsforsøg
med Svampe (Wehmek), fremdeles af Crassulaceernes afvigende Assimilation. Som
Reservenæringsslof funktionerer de organiske Syrer vist nok kun i enkelte Tilfælde,
om end højere Planler ofte turde have Evne til at optage Æble- Citron- endog fri
Oxalsyre i Stofskiftet. Selv Kalciumoxalatet, der sædvanlig forbliver intakt, hjem-
falder i mange Tilfælde til Opløsning og videre Oparbejdning. Da Kalciumoxalalets
Forsvinden af Rbizomer, Bark m. ni. etter Kraus (Pag. ä4). Kobl (Pag. 48) kun ind-
træffer ved Kalkmangel, synes det, at Saltets Genoptagelse i Slofskiftet væsentlig
sker af Hensyn til Kalken*.

Med Henblik paa Oxalsyrens ringe Forbrændingsvarme turde dens Forarbejdning
i Almindeligbed ikke yde slørre Nytte. (Webmers Svampekullurer).

* Pfeffers Gengivelse af Kraus' Korsog og Ansluielsc er ilike liorieUt. K. mener jo netop at have bevist,
at Kaleiumo.\alatet ganslse rcgelniæ.ssigt opløses og genoptages i Stofskiftet ved Væxtperiodens Indtræden.

84 14

Aabenbail kan Syrerne imienlbr visse Grænser gensidig erstatte liverandre.
Dog maa der regnes med deres specielle Egenskaljer, for Oxalsyren f. Ex. dens
høje Aviditet, Giftighed, ringe Forbrændingsvarnie og Kalcinmsallets Uopløselighed.
Den lette umiddelbare Iagttagelse af Oxalatkrystallerne har iøvrigt foranlediget,
at Opmærksomheden overvejende og ofte ensidigt er bleven koncentreret j)aa
Oxalsyren.

JosT-") anker gentagne Gange over de ved forskellige Forsøg fremsatte An-
skuelser, hvilke han ikke finder fyldestgørende, fordi de udelukkende støtter sig til
mikrokemiske Analyser. Han kræver Beviserne ført gennem kemiske Analyser
(bl.a. Pag. 172 og 174).

Czapek'') omtaler den udbredte Forekomst af Oxalat hos Tokimbladede, ide
han tillige ntvvner de af Kohl angivne Undtagelser (Orohanchaceer, Rhinanlaceer
og Leniilnilariaceer). ^oni Identitetsprøver paa Kalciumoxalat anføres de sædvan-
lige, og C. tilføjer, at han ikke linder, at der i disse Reaktioner liaves noget paa-
lideligt Værn mod Forvexlinger med Kalksalle af andre organiske Syrer; det er
tvært imod sandsynligt, at Kalciummalat, -citrat, -tartrat og -oxalat hyppigt er
blevet forvexlet. Den kemiske Analyse maa her ubetinget kontrollere de mikro-
kemiske F"orsøg.

Med Wehmers Svampekultnrer som Grundlag drages der tilsvarende Slutninger
om Oxalsyrens Forhold i højere Planter, idel den opfattes som et ufuldstændigt
Iltningsprodukt af Hexosegrupper, medens samtidig Muligheden og Sandsynligheden
af andre Dannelsesmaader betones. Som uhold])ar betegnes Liebigs Anskuelse,
saavel som den tilsvarende af Berthelot og André fremsatte Antagelse, efter hvilken
Oxalsyren i Riimex acetosa skulde dannes i Bladene ved en ufuldstændig Reduktion
af Kulsyren. Schimpers og Kohls Sondring mellem primært, sekundært, tertiært
(kvarlært) Kalciumoxalat betegnes som uheldig. En Række Iagttagelser, bl. a. af
Schimper, viser den Indflydelse, Lyset har paa Antallet af de i Bladel dannede
Kalcinnioxalat-Krystaller. Ved Mørkekultur eller ved begrænset Belysning — indtil
2 Timer daglig — opnaar Bladene omtrent normal Størrelse, men mangler Oxalat-
aflejringer. De her igennem indvundne Erfaringer er dog ikke utvivlsomme, idet
man har ladet sig nøje med mikroskopiske Iagttagelser, uden at støtte disse til
kvantitative Bestemmelser af Oxalsyren. Det i højere Planler aflejrede Kalcium-
oxalat maa anses som P>xkrel. Oxalsyrens Binding til Kalcium maa tydes som en
passende Form til at holde den giftige Oxalsyre paa cl Koncentrationsminimum.
Det er dog ikke udelukket, at Planlen i forskellig Retning kan drage økologisk
Nytte af dette Indholdsstof. Uagtet Oxalsyren biokemisk er et Exkret, er det saa-
ledes ikke udelukket, at Krystallerne under visse Forhold kan opløses i den levende
Celle. Saadanne Opløsningsfænomener er hyppigt iagttaget (Frank, Soraner, DeVries,
Aè, Tschirch og Czapek (Pfeffer er ikke nævnt)). Da disse Angivelser aldrig er
kontrolleret ad analytisk Vej, maa man for Tiden belegne de Slutninger, der er
draget heraf, som meget for vidlgaaende.

G. Krans har paa Grundlag af kvantitative Bestemmelser ment, at Kalcium-

15 85

oxalatet i Træers Bark* maa betegnes som Reservenæring. Efter de foretagne Be-
stemmelser foregaar der fra Vinter til Foraar og under Spiringen en Formindskelse
af Kalciumoxalatmængden. Det samme Forhold gør sig gældende for Runie.v ohtii-
sifolius. Bortset fra, at de paagældende Mindreindhold slet ikke kan opfattes som
andet end ledsagende sekundære Fænomener af de livligt foregaaende Omsætninger
i Organerne, og at Opfattelsen af Kalciumoxalatet som et Reservenæringsstof kræver
et andet Grundlag, staar der imod Kraus' Bestemmelser en Række Kendsgerninger,
som Wehmer har paavist for Grene, Knopper og Blade. W. kunde saaledes ikke
paavise noget Forbrug af de under Bladets Udvikling aflejrede Druser, ejheller
fandt der om Foraaret nogen Oplosning Sted af de om Efteraaret i Knopperne
dannede Oxalaldruser, og i de unge Blade dannes Kalciumoxalatet forst efter al
Bladene har udfoldet sig fuldstændigt af Knoppen. Disse Forhold har Wehmer
især skildret for Symphoricarpiis racemosiis' Vedkommende. Der findes endvidere
hos W. talrige Kendsgerninger, som gør de af Schimper fremsatte Anskuelser om
Kalciumoxalatets Vandring ret usandsynlige.

W. Johannsen^'") angiver under Stofskiftets Fysiologi, Pag. 352: Da Kalcium-
oxalatet sædvanligvis ikke opløses, indses det, at Bladene efterliaanden bliver rigere
og rigere paa dette Stof. Pag. Iß7: Kalciumoxalatets Forhold i Plantens Stofskifte
er endnu ikke helt opklaret; i de fleste Tilfælde maa Krystallerne opfattes som Af-
faldsstof, unyttigt for Planten. Under Hungerperioder synes dog en Del af det at
kunne opløses, for saa vidt det ligger i levende Celler; men som Helhed findes
Krystallerne navnlig i ældre Væv; gamle Blade og gammel Bark indeholder meget
Kalciumoxalat, der bortkastes med dem. I Celler, der ophober Forraadsstof, findes
det ikke, eller kun i ringe Mængde. Kalciumcitrat kan optræde paa lignende
Maade og forvexles let dermed (Wehmer).

Der er i ovenstaaende Uddrag givet en Oversigt, der selv om den ikke er
ganske fuldstændig dog omfatter de væsenligste Specialarbejder, og i alle Tilfælde
repræsenterer de forskellige Opfattelser, der er kommet frem ved Behandlingen af
dette Emne. Ganske modstridende Anskuelser er gjort gældende. En Iagttager ser,
at der foregaar en Opløsning af Krystaller i et Blad, en Anden benægter, at der
foregaar en Opløsning. Det tilsyneladende saa simple Spørgsmaal er selvfølgelig
mere kompliceret og er blevet det j'derligere, dels paa Grund af Mangler ved de
anvendte Undersøgelsesmetoder, dels — og ikke mindst — ved Fremsættelsen af
Anskuelser, som for største Delen var bygget over ganske uklare og usandsynlige
Hypoteser. Forholdet er jo faktisk det, at en Række Arbejder siden 1888 har været
præget af de Schimper-Kohlske Anskuelser — for eller imod. Naar det nu kræves,
al de mikrokeniiske Reaktioner, hvoraf man har betjent sig ved de fleste af disse
Arbejder, burde være støttet af makrokemiske og kvantitative Analyser (.lost, Czapek)
og udtales, at Opmærksomheden overvejende og ofte ensidigt har været koncentreret

* Der citeres kun Forsøgene med liihcs sdiiiiiiiiiciiin, liosa ciinina og Pyrus Malus.

86 16

paa Oxalsyren (Pfeffer) er Kravel og Paastanden berettiget, men Erfaringen herom
er fremgaaet af de paagældende Arbejder.

Forinden jeg kommer ind paa en kritisk Omlale af de Uoverensstemmelser,
som lindes mellem de foreliggende Arbejder og de liesullater, hvortil jeg er kommen,
skal jeg meddele mine egne Undersøgelser.

II. Egne Undersøgelser.

Den Opgave, jeg satte mig, var at söge oplyst, hvorvidt de Kalksalle, som
findes udskilt i forskellige Organer, og som man i Regelen finder betegnet som
Kalciumoxalat, virkelig bestod af dette Salt. Efter de Erfaringer, jeg havde gjort
ved direkte mikroskopiske Undersøgelser af Droger og ved mikrokemiske Reaktioner,
som anstilledes paa de indeholdte Kalksalte, var jeg bleven overbevist om, at det i
nogle Droger indeholdte Kalksalt, som i Litteraturen angaves at være Kalciumoxalat,
ikke var dette Salt; i andre Tilfælde kunde jeg paavise, at almindelig anvendte
mikrokemiske Reaktioner kunde forløbe paa saadan Maade, al man kom til Fejl-
slutninger om Kalksaltets Art. Endelig kunde jeg i en Række Droger, i hvilke der
efter Angivelserne i Litteraturen ikke skulde indeholdes Kalksalt, med Sikkerhed
paavise disses Tilstedeværelse. Exempter paa disse Iagttagelser vil blive anført i
Redegørelsen for de enkelte Undersøgelser. Side om Side med den kemiske Under-
søgelse af Drogerne er der foretaget en mikroskopisk for at paavise de indeholdte
Kalksaltes Form, deres Aflejringssteder og Opløselighedsforhold.

Til Brug ved den kemiske Undersøgelse prøvedes det forsøgsvis at bringe
Kalksaltene i Opløsning ved Udtrækning med Vand, fortyndet Eddikesyre og for-
tyndet Salpetersyre, idet Materialet udrystedes gentagne Gange med Vædskerne i
den angivne Rækkefølge i et Wagnersk Rysteapparat. Hensigten var allerede ved
Udrystningen at faa de lettere opløselige Kalksalte skilt fra de tungere opløselige.
Det viste sig imidlertid, at der ved gentagen Udrystning med Eddikesyre opløstes
noget Kalciumoxalat, hvorved Metodens Fordelagtighed blev ret problematisk, og
ved Udrystningen med Salpetersyre følte jeg mig aldrig rigtig sikker paa, at alt
Kalciumoxalat var opløst; selv efter vedholdende Behandling kunde jeg ved mikro-
skopisk Undersøgelse af Stoffet af og til finde uopløst Kalksalt. Moloden ændredes
da saaledes, at Materialet forst udrørfes med Vand, henstod kort Tid under Om-
røring, hvorefter Vædsken frafiltreredes. Stoffet bragtes paa Filtret, udvadskedes
gentagne Gange med Vand, koldt og kogende, hvorefter del udkogtes 2 Gange med
fortyndet Saltsyre. Ved Kontrolprøver overbeviste jeg mig om, at alt Kalksalt
var opløst.

De paa denne Maade vundne vandige og saltsure Udtræk koncentreredes. Til
del vandige Udtræk sattes c. 4 Rumfang Vinannd, hvorved Kalk- og underliden

17 87

Magnesiasalte udfældedes som fyldige Bundfald. Det koncentrerede saltsure Udtræk
neutraliseredes i varm Tilstand med Kaliumkarbonat og for at faa en fuldstændig
Udfa>ldning af Kalksaltene tilsattes 2—3 Rumfang Vinaand. Til Filtratet fra de med
koldt og varmt Vand udtrukne og derefter ved Tilsætning af Vinaand udskilte Kalk-
salte sattes Kalciumacetat og noget mere Vinaand; herved udskiltes Kalksaltene af
de Syrer, som havde været til Stede i alkalibunden eller fri Tilstand.

Der kom herefter til at foreligge 3 Grupper af Kalksalte, som vilde være at
undersøge for at bestemme de i dem indgaaede kalkfældende Syrer. 1) I Vand
opløste Kalksalte, 2) i Saltsyre opløste Kalksalte og 3) Kalksalle af kalkfældende
Syrer, som havde været til Stede i Form af akalibundne eller fri Syrer. De frem-
stillede Kalksalte var selvfølgelig meget urene, hvilket allerede kunde skønnes af
Bundfaldenes Farve. Sallene af 1 og 3 dannede sædvanligvis graalige Bundfald,
Saltene af 2 hyppigt mørke, næsten sorte Bundfald. For at renses og bringes i en
for Undersøgelsen skikket Form overførtes Kalksallene til Kalisalte gennem Bly-
saltene, idet de opløstes i fortyndet Salpetersyre; i Filtratet afstumpedes Salpeter-
syren saa vidt muligt ved Kaliumkarbonat, hvorpaa Blysaltene udftvldedes med
Blyacetal, for fuldstændig Udfældnings Skyld tilsattes 2 Rumfang Vinaand. Efter
Henstand frafdtreredes Blysaltene, udvadskedes med fortyndet Vinaand, opslemmedes
i Vand og dekomponeredes ved Tilledning af Svovlbrinte, hvormed Vædsken henstod
Natten over. Filtratet med de fri Syrer neutraliseredes med Kaliumkarbonat efter
Udjagning af Svovlbrinten. Med de saaledes fremstillede Opløsninger af Kalisaltene
foretoges derpaa Adskillelsen af de kalkfældende Syrer paa sædvanlig Maade. En
ringe Mængde af Opløsningen undersøgtes paa Svovlsyre, saafremt den fandtes til
Stede, udfældedes Baryumsulfatet i saltsur Væd.ske ved Baryumklorid, under Iagt-
tagelse af at Baryumklorid ikke tilsattes i Overskud. Ved tilstrækkelig Udtrækning
af Materialet med koldt og varmt Vand vil Svovlsyren som Regel kun lindes i det
vandige Udtræk og i det vinaandige Filtrat fra dettes Kalksalte, 1 og 3. For Vin-
syre, som iøvrigt aldrig paavistes, prøvedes i eddikesur Vædske ved Tilsætning af
et lige Rumfang Vinaand. I den for Vinaand befriede Vædske prøvedes paa Oxal-
syre ved Tilsætning af Kalciumacetat til den kogende Vædske. Filtratet tilsaltes
efter Afkøling Ammoniakvand i Overskud, hvorved Fosfat og Tannat udfældedes.
Filtratet herfra prøvedes paa forskellig Maade paa Kalciumcitral, idet del dels inil-
kogtes til ringe Rumfang under Overholdelse af ammoniakalsk Reaktion, dels i
passende Koncentration lidt efter lidt tilsattes et lige Rumfang Vinaand. I Filtratet
udfældedes tilstedeværende Kalciumnialat og -succinat samlet ved Tilsætning af
Vinaand, det frafiltrerede og med fortyndet Vinaand {i-\-lAq) udvadskede Bundfald
omdannedes paa ny gennem Blysaltene til Kalisalte. Malat og Succinat skiltes da
efter Barfoed-'), idet Vædsken koncentreredes til ringe Rumfang — i Regelen
c. 2 Gem. — og tilsattes 6 Rumfang Vinaand. Herved udfældedes Malat som en
olieagtig Masse, oftest med rødlig Farve, medens Succinatet holdtes i Opløsning.

De med Svovlbrinte dekomponerede Blysalte af det vandige og saltsure Ud-
træks Kalksalte gav undertiden ganske uklare Filtrater, ligesom Filtrene hurtigt

1). K. I). VitlensU. Selsk. SUr., 7. Kække, n.iturvideilsk. of^ ni:itl]cni. ATd- \'1II. '2. 12

88 18

tilstoppedes; efter Tilsætning af 1 — 2 Rumfang Vinaand kunde der i saa Tilfælde
faas klare Filtrater.

Ved Fældningen af Fosfat og Tannat med Ammoniak viste det sig hyppigt
ved den mikroskopiske Undersøgelse af Bundfaldet, al kryslallinsk Kalksall (Citrat,
Malat) samtidig var fældet. Fældningen gentoges da, efter at Bundfaldet var opløst
med Anvendelse af et Par Draaber Saltsyre i Vand.

Den Stofmængde, som toges i Arbejde, har været noget forskellig efter Mængden
af de indeholdte Kalksalle; den udgjortle indtil 20 Grm. lufttørret Slof og er i væ-
sentlig Grad begrænset ved de under Analysens Gang dannede meget voluminøse
Bundfald, som man af Hensyn til Udvadskningen ikke kan have alt for store. Iden-
lificeringen af de fremstillede kalkfældende Syrer er sket dels mikroskopisk, dels
ved forskellige Identitetsprøver. Citronsyren er foruden ved Kalksaltets Opløselig-
hedsforhold identificeret ved Stahres Reaktion. Æblesyren — og i faa Tilfælde
Ravsyren — er, naar Syrens Mængde har tilladt det, identificeret ved Bestemmelse
af Ækvivalenttallet, altid ved BeskatTenheden af det ved 6 Rumfang Vinaand ud-
skille Kalisalt. Til Ækvivalenttalbestemmelserne er Sølvsaltene benyttet. Kalk-
saltene syntes mig mindre anvendelige, idet Angivelserne om den Temperatur, ved
hvilken de afgiver Krystalvandet, er forskellig. Sølvcitralel var dog ikke direkte
anvendeligt, idet det forpuffer ved Ophedning, om end mindre voldsomt end Oxa-
latet. Ravsyren er altid identificeret efter Barfoeds Metode. Jerntveiltesaltet ud-
fældedes af den tykflydende, svagt sure Opløsning med Ammoniakvand. Succinatet
frafiltreredes, ud vadskedes indtil Filtratet var klorfrit, tørredes ved 100°, blandedes
med tørt, surt Kaliumsulfat og underkastedes Sublimation i Reagensglas paa Sand-
bad ved en indtil 170° stigende Temperatur. Sublimatet undersøgtes derpaa mi-
kroskopisk.

I enkelte Tilfælde har Forholdene krævet, at Gangen i Analysen maatte ændres.
Det har exempelvis været Tilfældet ved Undersøgelsen af Radix Althaeae, hvor jeg
paa Grund af Rodens store Indhold af Slim maatte anvende Dialysator. Unge
Blade af Crataegus monogyna gav et vandigt Udtræk, som — ligeledes paa Grund
af indeholdt Slim — ikke lod sig filtrere. Udtrækket af Crataegusblade, der var
indsamlet om Efteraaret, kunde derimod filtreres.

Mængden af Kalciumoxalat i del saltsure Udtræk er bestemt kvantitativt
som Ca O.

I en særlig Portion af det lufttørrede Stof paa omtrent 2 Grm. foretoges føl-
gende Bestemmelser:

Vand (efter Tørring ved 100°), Aske, i Saltsyre uopløselig Rest af Aske (Sand),
den samlede Mængde Kalk som Ca O og Svovlsyre. Disse Bestemmelser opføres
ved de enkelte Analyser under 4.

Til Bestemmelsen af Ca O rensedes den saltsure Opløsning af Asken paa sæd-
vanlig Maade ved Tilsætning af Natriumkarbonat og Natriumacetat, Kogning med
Jerntvekloridopløsning og Udvadskning af Bundfaldet med svag Ammoniumacetat-
opløsning Af det kogende F"iltral udfældedes Kalciumoxalalel. I el Par Tilfælde har

jeg til Sammenligning fæklel Kakiumoxalnlet uden forudgaaende Behandling. Del
synes af de fundne Tal al IVemgaa, al Mængden af Fosfat har været for ringe til
al kunne faa Indllydelse. Svovlsyren er heslemt som H , SO, af Baryumsulfalcl.

Af Analyserne fremgaar det, hvor slor en Mængde Kalk Stoffet i all har inde-
holdt og med nogenlunde Nøjagtighed, hvor meget af denne der har været bundet
til Oxalsyre, idet delle vil svare til den Mængde Ca O, som det sallsure Udtræks
Kalcinmoxalal giver. Teoretisk kan der gøres den Indvending, at der ved Udtræk-
ningen med Vand kan have fundet Omsætninger Sled (mellem lettere opløselige
Kalksalle og Kaliumoxalat), men Resultatet vil da blot blive, at den fundne Mængde
CaO af indeholdt Kalcinmoxalal er lidt for højt ansat. Ved de enkelte Analyser er
angivet Mængden af Total-CaO, hvormeget af denne, der har været bundet til
Oxalsyre og den Mængde, der har været bundet til andre kalkfældende Syrer. Efter
den Letopløselighed, som Sulfatet udviste, og efter den mikroskopiske Undersøgelses
Resultater gaar jeg ud fra, at Svovlsyren har været til Stede som Kalisalt. Fosfor-
sj'ren, hvis Mængde ikke er ret slor, har vel været til Stede som Kalk- eller Mag-
nesiasalt, og muligt er det jo, at andre Syrer (f. Eks. Akonitsyre) kan have været
til Stede. Del er af denne Grund, al der i Analyserne er angivet, at Rest af CaO
fortrinsvis har været bundet til Citron-, Æble- og Ravsyre.

Tussilago Farfariis.
Bladets Bygning er vist i Fig. 1 o. Medens man kun undtagelsesvis finder Kry-
staller i Snit af del friske Blad, vil man i Snit af Drogen eller af Spiritus-Materiale,

Via. 1 a.

Vig. 1 c.

I-i).. 1 b.

som indlægges i Vinaand eller i Glycerin og Vinaaiid, finde talrige Krystaller, der
dels har Form som Sfæriter, Fig. 1 ft, dels af løst byggede Krystalbundler, hvis
Form er meget vexlende, idet Krystallerne kan være ordnet buskformet, som ret
regelmæssige Stjerner, eller mere uregelmæssigt, Fig. 1 c. Aflejringsstederne er saavel
Palissadeceller som Svampparenkym. Krystallerne er fuldstændigt eller for største
Delen opløselige i Vand. Ved Tilsætning af Svovlsyre dannes talrige Gipsnaale.

12"

Jos. Mueller angiver-^), Pag. 82 og-"') Pag. ',10, al Hladi'l ikke indeholder Kry-
staller, samme Angivelse har Planchon & Collin^"), Bd. II, Pag. 49. Andre Forl'allere,
f. Ex. FlOckigek og GiLG, udtaler sig ikke om Krystalindhold. Solereder anl'orer
i al Almindelighed om Compositae'^) Pag. 523: Indhold af Kalciumoxalat som
naaleformede, prismatiske eller smaa oktaedriske Krystaller, Sfærokrystaller, som
(efter Kohl) hestaar af Gips. Derimod har Arthur Meyer '-) Bd. II, Pag. 218, set
Krystallerne, hvilke han tegner og beskriver omtrent som jeg, men han angiver,
at det er Oxalat.

Kemisk Undersøgelse. Anvendt 15 Grm. lufttørret Slof.

1) I det vandige Udtræk fandtes:

Svovlsyre. Fosfor- og Garvesyre. Citronsyre i ringe Mængde. Æble- og
Ravsyre.

2) I det saltsure Udtræk fandtes:

Oxalsyre, ubetydelig Mængde. Fosfor- og Garvesyre, ubetydelig Mængde.
Citron-, Æble- og Ravsyre i ringe Mængder. Ved Glødning af Kalcium-
oxalatet fandtes 0,04 »/o CaO i lufttørret Stof.

3) Kalkfældende Syrer, som havde været til Stede i alkalibunden eller fri
Tilstand :

Svovlsyre, Spor. Fosfor- og Garvesyre i ringe Mængder. Citronsyre,

ringe Mængde. Æble- og Ravsyre, rigelige Mængder.
Ved Bestemmelsen af Æ.blesyrens Ækvivalcnttal fandtes delte at være 67,2.

4) Vand 7,13 "i'u. Aske 15,08 "/o. I Saltsyre uopløselig Rest af Aske 1,37"/.-,
Cn O 3,01 "(O. Svovlsyre 3,78 f/o. Alt i lufttørret Stof.

Den til Oxalsyre bundne Mængde CaO udgjorde 0,04 "/o. Resien, 2,97 "/o,

har fortrinsvis været lil Stede som Malat, Succinat og Citrat.
98,67 "/o af Ca O-Mængden har ikke været bundet lil Oxalsyre.

Mentha piperita.
Fig. 2 a viser et Tværsnit af Bladet. Tages Snit af Spiritus-Materiale eller af
Drogen vil de efter Indlægning i Vinaand eller Glycerin og Vinaand vise talrige

Sfærokrystaller og løse Krystalstjerner. Sfæro-
krystallerne er ofte noget utydeligt radiært stri-
Æ^ bede, Fig. 2 1). Indlægges Snittene i Vand, op-
(^ løses Kalksallel lil Dels og paa saadan Maade,
at man derefter ser line Krystaller, som er ord-
nede til meget løse Stjerner eller Sfæriler. Af-
lejringsstederne er saavel Palissadeceller som
Svampparenkym. Ved Tilsætning af Svovlsyre
dannes talrige Gipsnaale.
I begge Fladers, men fortrinsvis i Oversidens, Epidermis findes el i Sfærit-
eller Buskform udkrystalliseret Stof, som iøvrigt gentagne Gange er iagttaget. Ud
over nogle foretagne mikrokemiske Prøver har jeg ikke nærmere undersøgt det.

FiK. 2 b.

'Sy

Fig. 2 a.

21 91

SlofTel er opløseligt i Kaliumhydroxydopløsning, uopløseligt i Syrer, I". Kx. i Svovl-
syre, det er altsaa ikke Kalksall. Jeg skal gøre opmærksom paa, at det samme
eller el lignende Stof i senere Tid gentagne Gange er paavist andre Steder, foruden
i andre Mentha Arter, f. Ex. i Bladene af Coniuin inaculatum, og at den Formodning
har været fremsat, at del skulde kunne afledes fra Carotin.

Solereder-"), Pag. 719, angiver i al Almindelighed om Lahiatae: Den oxalsure
Kalk er, hvor den forekommer i Blad og Axedelc, til Stede som sniaa naaleformede,
stavformede eller oktaedriske Krystaller, ofte flere i hver Celle; sjældent i Form af
Druser: Lycopus, Pycnanthenmm linifolium. Hos andre Forfattere har jeg ikke
fundet Angivelser om Indhold af Krystaller i dette Blads Mesofyl, fraregnet Tschirch.
T. har nemlig set Sfæriter ved Nerverne, men mistyder disse Krystaller, idet han
antager dem identiske med det i Epidermis forekommende Slof"), Pag. 74.

Kemisk Undersøgelse. Anvendt 20 Grni. lufttørret Stof.

1) I del vandige Udtræk fandtes:

Svovlsyre. Fosfor- og Garvesyre. Citronsyre, ret rigelig Mængde. Æble-
og Ravsyre i rigelige Mængder.
Ved Bestemmelsen af Æblesyrens Ækvivalenttal fandtes dette at være 67,6.

2) I del sallsure Udtræk fandtes:

Fosfor- og Garvesyre, mindre Mængder. Citronsyre. Æblesyre i ringe
Mængde.

3) Kalkfældende Syrer, som havde været til Stede i alkalibunden eller fri
Tilstand:

Svovlsyre. Fosfor- og Garvesyre i ringe Mængder. Æblesyre, rigelig
Mængde. Ravsyre, mindre Mængde.

4) Vand 8,95 "/o. Aske 15,40 "/n. I Saltsyre uopløselig Rest af Aske 5,73",«.
Ca O 3,08 "o. (Ved en anden Bestemmelse, som foreloges uden Udfæld-
ning af Jern og Fosforsyre fandtes 3,14 "/o Ca O). Svovlsyre 1,00 "/o. Alt
i lufttørret Stof.

Der er slet ikke paavist Oxalsyre. Den samlede Ca O-Mængde har for-
trinsvis været til Stede som Malat, Citrat og Succinat.

Pilocarpus species. {Folia Jaborandi).
Fig. 3 viser et Tværsnit af Bladel. Saa vel i Palissader som i Svampparenkym
forekommer der Kryslalsljerner, ikke sjældent findes flere i een Palissadecelle, som
da har Tværskillevægge mellem Krystalsljernerne. Disse Krystalstjerner er almindelig
kendt og beskrevet som Kalciumoxalat. Jeg har tillige paavist Tilstedeværelsen af
løsere byggede Krystalstjerner og forskelligt formede Konglomerater, som er lettere
opløselige end de tælle Kryslalsljerner. Behandles Snit med Klorammoniumoplos-
ning (20 " o) i nogle Timer (jeg har ladet henligge i 3 T.), vil man ved Fftersogning
finde, at Krystalsljernerne er opløst, enten fuldstændigt eller med Eflerladelse af
Grupper af Smaakorn, som antyder de for største Delen opløste Krystalstjerner.

Kemisk Undersøgelse. Anvendt 20 Gini. lul'lljorrel Stof.
1) I del vandige Udtræk fandtes:

Svovlsyre. Fosfor- og Garvesyre. Citronsyre, mindre Mængde. Æble-
og Ravsyre, rigelige Mængder.
Ved Bestemmelsen af Æblesyrens Ækvivalentlnl fandtes dette at være
68,9. Ved Bestemmelsen af Ravsyrens Ækvivalenttal fandtes dette at
være 61 (Teoretisk 59).

2) I del saltsnre Udtræk fandtes:
Oxalsyre, mindre Mængde. Citron-
syre, mindre Mængde. Æble- og
Ravsyre, mindre Mængder. Ved
Glødning af Kalciumoxalatet fand-
tes 0,48 " II Ca O.

3) Kalkfældende Syrer, som havde været
til Stede i alkalibnnden eller fri Til-
stand:

Svovlsyre, ringe Mængde. Æble- og
Ravsyre, rigelige Mængder.

4) Vand7,54«/ü. Aske 9,95 »/o. I Saltsyre
uopløselig Rest af Aske 2,27 ",'o. Ca O
,-5,45 "/.I. Svovlsyre 0,46 "/o. Alt i luft-
tørret Stof.

Den til Oxalsyre bundne Mængde CaO udgjorde 0,48''/o. Resten, 2,97"/o,

har fortrinsvis været til Stede som Malat, Succinal og Citrat.
86,r'/ii af Ca O-Mængden har ikke været bundet til Oxalsyre.

Fig. 3.

Digitalis purpurea.

Fig. 4 viser et Snit af Bladet. Tages Snit af Spi-
ritus-Materiale eller af Drogen vil de ved Indhegning i
Vinaand eller Glycerin og Vinaand vise Sfærokrystaller
og løsere eller tættere byggede Krystalstjerner. Efter
Indlægning i Vand opløses Krystallerne, i hvert Tilfælde
for største Delen; i vandigt Præparat har jeg paavist
faa Kryslalstjerner. Ved Tilsætning af Svovlsyre dannes
el rigeligt Antal Gipsnaale. Atlcjringsslederne er Palis-
sadeceller og Svampparenkym ; Krystalstjernerne har
jeg udelukkende fundet i Svampparenkymel, Sfæriter
tillige i Haarene.

I Litteraturen angives Bladet al mangle Krystaller, f. Ex. Giig'^'),
Flûckiger'O, Pag. 671; Arthur Meyer-^^), Bd. Il, Pag. 202; Jos. Moeller-'^)
Tschirch-'S) Pag. 391 og-'") Bd. IV, Pag. 393; Planchon & Collin'»), Bd. I,
Derimod angiver ældre Forfattere, som Otto''), Pag. 270: Indhold af oxa

Fig. 4.

Pag. 305;

I Pag. 83;

Pag. 548.

Isnr Kalk

og Wiggers-'^), Pag. 308: 2 "/o Kaliumoxalat, samt Vinsten. Solereder"), Pag. (»60,
angiver i al Almindelighed om Scrophulariaceae: Den oxalsure Kalk er sædvanlig
udskilt i F'orm af smaa prismatiske, oktaedriske eller naaleformede Krystaller.

Kemisk Undersøgelse. Anvendt 15 Grm. lufttorret Stof.

1) I del vandige Udtræk fandtes:

Svovlsyre. Fosfor- og Garvesyre. Citronsyre, ringe Mængde. Æhlesyre,
rigelig Mængde. Ravsyre, ringe Mængde.

2) I det sallsure Udtræk fandtes:

Citronsyre, ringe Mængde. Æhlesyre, mindre Mængde. Ravsyre, ringe
Mængde.

3) Kalkfældende Syrer, som havde været til Stede i alkalibunden eller fri
Til.stand:

Svovlsyre. Citronsyre, ringe Mængde. Æhlesyre, rigelig Mængde. Rav-
syre, mindre Mængde.
Ved Bestemmelsen af Æhlesyrens Ækvivalenttal fandtes dette at være 66,0.

4) Vand 10,90 "o. Aske 8,34 "/o. 1 Saltsyre uopløselig Rest af Aske 0,39 "/o.
CaO 1,13 "o. Svovlsyre 1,35 »/o. Alt i lufttørret Stof.

Der er slet ikke paavist Oxalsyre. Den samlede Ca O-Mængde har for-
trinsvis været til Stede som Malat, Citrat og Succinat.

Crataegus monogyna.

Der er foretaget Undersøgelser af Blade, som ind.samledes 24. Juni og 20. Ok-
tober 1908.

Fig. 5 a.

Fig. 5 b.

Bladets Bygning ses af Fig. 5 a, som er tegnet efter Oktober-Blad. Begge
Fladers Epidermis har forslimende Indervægge. Der findes tætte Krystalstjerner af-
lejret saavel i Palissadeceller som i Svampparenkym. Langs Nerverne forekommer
Belægning med Krystalkammerceller, Fig. 5 b\ endvidere forekommer fine naale-
formede Krystaller, som bedst ses i Parenkyinet omkring Nerverne. Ved sammen-
lignende Undersøgelse fandtes det, at Oktoberbladene indeholdt flere Krystalstjerner
og Enkeltkrystaller i Krystalkammerceller. Ved Tilsætning af Svovlsyre dannes
talrige Gipsnaale. Ved Behandling med Klorammoniumopløsning (20 "/n) opløses

94 24

Kryslalstjenierne fuldstændigt eller for største Delen; medens Enkeltkrystallerne i
Krystalkammercellerne bliver uopløste.

Kemisk Undersøgelse.

a) Juni-Blade. Anvendt 10 Grm. lufttørret Stof.

Det vandige Udtræk lod sig ikke filtrere paa Grund af Bladenes Ind-
hold af Slim. Undersøgelsen er derfor foretaget med det saltsure
Udtræk.
I del saltsure Udtræk fandtes:

Svovlsyre. Oxalsyre, mindre Mængde. Citronsyre, mindre Mængde.

Æblesyre. Ravsyre, ret rigelige Mængder.
Ved Glødning af Kalciumoxalatet fandtes 0,59 "/o Ca O.
4) Vand 8,27 "/o. Aske 5,50 "'d. I Saltsyre uopløselig Rest af Aske 0,243 "/o.
Ca O 1,95 "/(I. Alt i lufttørret Stof.

Den til Oxalsyre bundne Mængde CaO udgjorde 0,59 "/o. Resten, 1,36 "/o,

har fortrinsvis været til Stede som Citrat, Malat og Succinat.
69,74 ^'/o af Ca O-Mængden har ikke været bundet til Oxalsyre.

b) Oktober Blade. Anvendt 15 Grm. lufttørret Stof.

1) 1 det vandige Udtræk fandtes:

Svovlsyre. Fosfor- og Garvesyre. Citronsyre, Spor. Æblesyre, ret

rigelig Mængde. Ravsyre, rigelig Mængde.
Ved Bestemmelsen af Ravsyrens Ækvivalenttal fandtes dette at

være 60,0.

2) I det saltsure Udtræk fandtes:

Oxalsyre, ret rigelig Mængde. Citronsyre, mindre Mængde. Æble-
syre, mindre Mængde.
Ved Glødning af Kalciumoxalatet fandtes 1,54 "/d CaO.

3) Kalkfældende Syrer, som havde været til Stede i alkalibjunden eller
fri Tilstand.

Svovlsyre. Æblesyre, mindre Mængde. Ravsyre, ret rigelig Mængde.

4) Vand 8,38 "lu. Aske 10,47 "/u. I Saltsyre uopløselig Rest af Aske
0,48 »/o. CaO 5,04 o/u. Svovlsyre 1,75"/». Alt i lufttørret Stof.

Den til Oxalsyre bundne Mængde CaO udgjorde 1,54 "/d. Resten,
3,50 "/(I, har fortrinsvis været til Stede som Succinat, Malat og
Citrat.

69,44 "/o af Ca O-Mængden har ikke været bundet til Oxalsyre.

Thea sinensis.

Til mikroskopisk og kemisk Undersøgelse er benyttet grøn Te, Handelssorten
Tivankay, som bestaar af udfoldede, men ikke udvoxede Blade.

P^ig. 6 viser et Tværsnit af Bladet med en Idioblast. Svampparenkymet inde-
holder løsere og tættere byggede Krystalstjerner, hvis Forekomst er almindelig

25 95

kendt og som i Litteraturen angives at være Kalciumoxalat, f. Ex. Fluckiger^"^),
Pag. 641; Gilg»), Pag. 220; Tscliirch •«), Pag. 10; Planchon & Collin'«) Bd. II, Pag. 741.
Jos. Moeller-''), Pag. 111, angiver Krystaldruser. Solereder"), Pag. 149, anfører i al
Almindelighed om Ternstroemiaceae: Kalciumoxalatet er til Stede i Form af Raiider,
Styloider, Druser og almindelige Enkeltkrystaller.

Jeg har foruden disse Stjerner paavist Enkeltkrystaller
i Palissadecellerne, samt Sfæriter i Palissader og Svamp-
parenkym, af og til endog i Epidermis. Dette sidste For-
hold maa sikkert sættes i Forbindelse med den Behandling,
de friske Blade undergaar, idet de efter at have mistet Saft-
spændingen rulles under Tryk; Saften, som bl. a. indeholder
lettere opløselige Kalksalte, vil herved bredes ud over Bladet.
Henlægges Snit i et Par Timer i Klorammoniumopløsning
(20"/(i), vil man finde, at Kalksaltet for største Delen er
opløst; nogle af de tætteste Krystalsljerner omkring Hoved- Fig. 6.

nerven er tilbage, mere eller mindre paavirket af Opløs-

ningsmidlel. Efter at Snittene havde henligget Natten over, kunde jeg kun hist og
her paavise uopløste Rester af Krystalstjernerne.

Kemisk Undersøgelse. Anvendt 15 Grm. lufttørret Stof.

1) I det vandige Udtræk fandtes:

Svovlsyre. Fosfor- og Garvesyre. Citronsyre, ringe Mængde. Æblesyre
og Ravsyre, ret rigelige Mængder.

2) I det saltsure Udtræk fandtes:

Oxalsyre, ringe Mængde. Citron- Æble- og Ravsyre i mindre Mængder.
Ved Glødning af Kalciumoxalatet fandtes 0,21 "In Ca O.

3) Kalkfældende Syrer, som havde været til Stede i alkalibunden eller fri
Tilstand :

Æble- og Ravsyre.

4) Vand 7,28 "/o. Aske 8,83"/". I Saltsyre uopløselig Rest af Aske 2,750/0.
Ca O 0,84 "/m. Svovlsyre 1,56"/». Alt i hifltorret Stof.

Den til Oxalsyre bundne Mængde CaO udgjorde 0,21 ";u. Resten, 0,(53 "/c,

har fortrinsvis været til Stede som Citrat, Malat og Succinat.
75,0 "/o af Ca O-Mængden har ikke været bundet til Oxalsyre.

Hyoscyamns nicjer.

Der er foretaget Undersøgelser af Isle Aars grundslillede, stilkede Blade, som
jeg indsamlede i overordentlig store Exemplarer ved Vemmetofte Strand og af andet
Aars siddende Blade, som forelan i Droge af særlig smukt Udseende. De siddende
Blades store Indhold af Kryslaller er almindelig kendt. Krystallerne er i Litteraturen
beskrevet som Kalciumoxalat; de forekommer som Enkelt- og Tvillingkrystaller, Kon-
glomerater og Stjernei-, medens dei- omkring Nerverne lillige er allejret Krystalsand.

I). K. 1). Viilensk. Selsk. Skr.. -. Il.-flilie, ii:iliir\l<li<nsk. iiK ni:Éllii-in. Al.l. VIII. -1. 13

Mærkeligt nok er det iindgaaet Opmærksomheden, at Krystallerne som Regel viser
een, sjældnere to eller tre Sfæriter, der er indsænkede i Krystallerne, Fig. ß a
Sum har i sit Arbejde over Hyoscijamus") heller ikke beskrevet dette Forhold. Ved
Gennemgang af Litteraturen har jeg fundet Sfæriterne angivet af Mitlachf.r '"), som
^. beskriver dem i Texten, medens det til-

hørende Billede (laant fra Vogl) ikke viser
dem. Nogen paalidelig diagnostisk Betyd-
ning har Sfæriterne dog ikke, idet de og-
saa forekommer i Enkeltkrystaller hos
Datura Stramonium og Atropa Belladonna,
&, om end langt fra i alle Krystallerne. løv-
r^ rigt er Krystaller med Sfæriter jo tidli-

gere paavist i andre Planter (Kohl).
\ ^ S (I I første Aars stilkede Blade har jeg

paavist talrige store Sfæriter, samt mere
eller mindre uregelmæssigt formede Kry-
stalstjerner, der maaske snarest burde
betegnes Konglomerater, desuden Enkelt-
krystaller, Fig. 6 b. Sfæriterne og en Del
af Krystalstjernernc er ret let opløselige (Vand, Klorammonium, Eddikesyre). Under-
søges Snit, som har henligget i Vinaand, vil man finde, al mange af Sfæriterne er
blevet straalet-krystallinske.

Fig. 6 a.

Ki}». 6 b.

Kemisk Undersøgelse.

a) 1ste Aars stilkede Blade. Anvendt 10 Grm. lufttørret Stof.

1) I det vandige Udtræk fandtes:

Svovlsyre. Oxalsyre, ringe Mængde. Fosfor- og Garvesyre. Citron-
syre, mindre Mængde. Æble- og Ravsyre, rigelige Mængder.

Ved Glødning af Kalciumoxalatet fandtes 0,12 "/o CaO.

Ved Bestemmelsen af Æble- og Ravsyrens Ækvivalenttal fandtes
henholdsvis Tallene 67,7 og 58,4.

2) I det saltsure Udtræk fandtes:

Oxalsyre , ret rigelig Mængde. Citron- og Æblesyre i mindre

Mængder.
Ved Glødning af Kalciumoxalatet fandtes 1,30 "/n CaO.

3) Kalkfældende Syrer, som havde været til Stede i alkalibunden eller
fri Tilstand :

Svovlsyre. Fosfor- og Garvesyre, ringe Mængde. Citronsyre, ret
rigelig Mængde. Æble- og Ravsyre, rigelige Mængder.

4) Vand 8,33 "/». Aske 20,80 "/o. I Saltsyre uopløselig Rest af Aske
2,14"/». Ca0 2AS)"lo. Mg O '2,V,V'o. Svovlsyre 1,09 "o. AH i luft-
tørret Stof.

27 97

Den lil Oxalsyre bundne Mængde CaO udgjorde 1,30 "/H. Resien,
0,89 "lu, har fortrinsvis væiet til Stede som Citrat, Malat og Suc-
cinat. Efter den seje BeskafTenhed, som det ved Tilsætning af
Vinaand til det vandige udtræk fremkomne Bundfald udviste,
kunde det formodes, at Bundfaldet for en væsentlig Del var
Magnesiasalte. Bestemmelsen af Mg O bekræfter dette.

40,64 " II af Cfl O-Mængden har ikke været bundet til Oxalsyre,
b) Andet Aars siddende Blade. Anvendt 10 Grm. Stof.
1) I det vandige Udtræk fandtes:

Svovlsyre. Oxalsyre. Fosfor- og Garvesyre. Æble- og Ravsyre.

Ved Glødning af Kalciumoxalatet fandtes 0,93 "(o CaO.
'2) I det saltsure Udtræk fandtes:

Oxalsyre, rigelig Mængde. Citronsyre, ringe Mængde. Æble- og
Ravsyre, mindre Mængder.

Ved Glødning af Kalciumoxalatet fandtes 2,87 "/o CaO.

3) Kalkfældende Syrer, som havde været lil Stede i alkalibunden eller
fri Tiisland. Kalksallene dannede et fyldigt og rigeligt Bundfald.
Mængden bestemtes efter Tørring ved 100°, den udgjorde 5,32 "/o.

Svovlsyre. Citronsyre, ringe Mængde. Æble- og Ravsyre, rigelige
Mængder.

4) Vand 10,84 "/n. Aske 14,58 " o. 1 Saltsyre uopløselig Rest af Aske
1,08 "/o (Drogens gode Beskalfenhed fremgaar bl. a. af del for Bwl-
meurtblade ualmindelig lave Indhold af Sand). CaO 3,45 "/u. Svovl-
syre 0,75 "lo. AU i lufttørret Stof.

Den til Oxalsyre bundne Mængde Ca O udgjorde 2,88 " ». Resien,
0,57 "/o, har fortrinsvis været til Stede som Malat, Succinal og
Citrat.
16,52 "/o af Ca O-Mængden har ikke været bundet lil Oxalsyre.

Dal lira Stramonium.
Bladel indeholder i Svanii)[)arenkymets øverste Cellelag talrige Kryslalsljerner,
desuden Enkeltkrystaller, hvis Antal vexler stærkt i forskellige Blade, og ved Ner-
verne Krystalsand. Enkeltkrystallerne kan, som allerede anført under Hyoscyamiis,
fore Sfæriler. Kalksallet angives almindeligt al være Kalciumoxalat.

Kemisk Undersøgelse. Anvendt 10 Grm. lufttørret Stof.

1) I det vandige Udtræk fandtes:

Svovlsyre. Oxalsyre. Fosfor- og Garvesyre. Citron- Æble- og Ravsyre

i mindre Mængder.
Ved Glødning af Kalciumoxalatet landtes 0,84 "'o CaO.

2) I det saltsure Udtræk fandtes:

Oxalsyre, rigelig Mængde. Citronsyre, mindre Mængde. Æble- og Rav-
syre, ringe Mængder.

13*

Ved Glødning af Kalciumoxalalel fandtes 3,00 "/d CaO.

3) Kalkfældende Syrer, som havde værel lil Siede i alkalibundcn eller fri
Tilstand :

Svovlsyre. Citronsyre, mindre Mængde. Æblesyre, mindre Mængde.

Ravsyre, rigelig Mængde.
Ved Bestemmelsen af Ravsyrens Ækvivalenital fandtes delle at være ()(),4.

4) Vand 6,15 "/n. Aske 14,15 "/o. I Saltsyre uopløselig Rest af Aske 1,22 "'d.
CaO 4,03 "/o. Svovlsyre 0,21 "/o. Alt i hifltørrel Stof.

Den lil Oxalsyre bundne Mængde CaO udgjorde 3,00 "/u. Resten, 1,03 "/o,

har fortrinsvis været lil Siede som Citrat, Malal og Succinal.
25,56 "/o af Ca O-Mængden har ikke værel bundet til Oxalsyre.

Crocus sativus. (Stigmata Croci).

Til den mikroskopiske Undersøgelse anvendtes Safran, som saa vidt muligt
alfarvedes ved gentagen Behandling med fortyndet Vinaand (5 -|- 1 A<i). 1 Snit af
den saaledes behandlede Droge paavisles i Parenkymet Sfærokrystaller, som hyppigt

Fig. 7 a.

Fig. 7 b.

FiK. 7 c

var lejrede i Grupper og viste en mere eller mindre tydelig radiær Stribning; de.s-
uden paavisles Kryslalkorn, Fig. 7 a, b og c. Med Svovlsyre dannes Gipsnaale.

De i Litteraturen foreliggende Angivelser om Kalksall-Kj-yslaller i Safran er
meget uoverensstemmende. Nogle Forfattere angiver saaledes Indhold af Kaleium-
oxalal, f. Ex. Arthur Meyer-'-'), Bd. II, Pag. 346; Vogl"), Pag. 357; Tschirdr-'), Pag. 92.
Jos. Moeller-''), Pag. 139 og""'), Pag- 100, finder, at der med Svovlsyre underliden
dannes fine, i Vand opløselige Kryslalnaale; Oxalalkryslaller mangler. Planchon
& Collin og Flückiger angiver Intel om Krystaller. Molisch '^), benægter Tilstede-
værelsen af Kalciumoxalat i Safran.

Rudolf Müller^^), Pag. 823, har søgt at bringe Klarhed over de forskellige
Angivelser. Han påaviser hidhold af Krystaller og finder, at Tilsætning af Svovl-
syre bevirker Dannelsen af Kryslalnaale, som — trods Oploseligheden i Vand —
vel kan lænkes al være Gipsnaale; men om del indeholdte Kalksalts Art lykkes
del ham ikke at give positiv Oplysning.

Kemisk Undersøgelse. Anvendt 10 Grni. lufttørret Safran.
1) 1 det vandige Udtræk fandtes:

Svovlsyre, Spor. Fosforsyre, ringe Mængde. Citronsyre, ringe Mængde.
Æblesyre, mindre Mængde. Ravsyre, rigelig Mængde.

2) I del sallsure Udlræk fandtes:

Citronsyre, mindre Mængde.

3) Kalkfældende Syrer, som havde værel til Stede i alkalibunden eller fri
Tilstand.

Svovlsyre. Citronsyre og Æblesyre, mindre Mængder. Ravsyre, ret
rigelig Mængde.

4) Vand 9,11 »/o. Aske 4,84 "o. I Saltsyre uopløselig Rest af Aske 0,58 »/o.
Ca O 0,72 ";o. Svovlsyre 0,56"/». Alt i lufttørret Stof.

Den samlede Mængde CaO har fortrinsvis været lil Stede som Succinat,
desuden som Citrat og Malat.

I en anden Prøve Safran paavistes el meget ringe Indhold af Kalciumoxalat,
som ved Glødning gav 0,08 "/o Ca O.

regelmæssigt Skifte

Kig. 8.
lidt større eller

Punica Granatuin (Cortex Granati).

Der er foretaget Undersøgelser af Handelsvaren og af unge Grene, som Hr.
Apoteker H. J. Moller efter min Anmodning har bragt hjem fra Italien. Jeg bringer
Hr. Apoteker Møller min Tak for dette Materiale.

Tværsnit af Barken viser et ganske
mellem Cellelag, der indeholder Kryslalstjerner og Lag af sti-
velseførende Parenkym med Sistrenge, Fig. 8. Krystalstjernerne
er gennemgaaende karakteriserede ved de enkelte Kryslaldeles
lidet tilspidsede Form. Kryslalstjernerne har derfor ikke sær-
ligt Præg af „Morgenstjerne", snarest kunde de belegnes som
rosetformede. Barken indeholder tillige el mindre Antal Enkelt-
krystaller. Ved Henliggen i Klorammoniumoplosning (20 " o)
opløses Krystalstjernerne til Dels, idet der efterlades uopløst el
mindre Antal Partikler af Sljernerne. Enkeltkrystallerne opløses ikke. I Littera-
turen angives Kalksallel ganske almindeligt at være Kalcinmoxalal. Nogle For-
fattere anfører alene Kryslalstjernerne, som ogsaa udgør del langt overvejende
Flertal.

Kemisk Undersøgelse.

a) Handelsvaren, bestaaende af lyk Bark af overjordiske Axedele. Anvenill
10 Grm. lufttørret Stof.

1) I det vandige Udtræk fandtes:

Svovlsyre. Fosfor- og Garvesyre. Æblesyre. Ravsyre.

2) I det saltsure Udtræk fandtes:

Oxalsyre, stor Mængde. Fosfor- og Garvesyre. Citronsyre. Æble-
og Ravsyre, ringe Mængder.
Ved Glødning af Kalciumoxalatet fandtes 5,67 "I» Ca O.

100 30

3) Kalkfældende Syrer, som havde været til Stede i alkaliljunden eller
fri Tilstand:

Fosfor- og Garvesyre. Æblesyre, ringe Mængde. Ravsyrc, ret rigelig
Mængde.

4) Vand 8,34 "/o. Aske 17,70 "'o. I Saltsyre uopløselig Rest af Aske
1,63 "/(i. CaO 9,07 '"(I. Svovlsyre 0,54 "/u. Alt i lufttørret Stof.

Den til Oxalsyre bundne Mængde CaO udgjorde 5,67 "/u. Resien,

3,40 "/11, har fortrinsvis været til Stede som Citrat, Succinal og

Malat.

37,49 "'o af Ca O-Mængden har ikke været bundet til Oxalsyre.

b) Bark af unge Grene. Grenenes Alder var — bestemt efter Aarringene —

indtil 4 Aar. Da Materialet ved Modtagelsen var tørt, og jeg ønskede at

foretage Undersøgelsen udelukkende af Rarken, udblødtes Grenene mud

fortyndet Vinaand. Derefter afskrabedes Barken. 1 All vandles c. 8 Grm.

Kemisk Undersøgelse. Anvendt 5 Grm. lufttørret Slof.

1) I det vandige Udtræk fandtes:

Svovlsyre. Fosfor- og Garvesyre. Citronsyre. Æblesyre, Ravsyre.

2) I del saltsure Udtræk fandtes:

Oxalsyre. Fosfor- og Garvesyre. Citronsyre. Æble- og Ravsyre, mindre

Mængder.
Ved Glødning af Kalciumoxalalet fandtes 1,38 "/o CaO.

3) Kalkfældende Syrer, som havde værel lil Stede i alkalibiinden eller fri
Tilstand.

Svovlsyre. Fosfor- og Garvesyre. Citron- og Æblesyre, mindre Mængder.
Ravsyre, ret rigelig Mængde.

4) Vand 6,86 "/d. Aske 5,53"/». I Saltsyre uopløselig Rest af Aske 0,20 "/o.
Ca O 3,00 "/(I. Alt i lufttørret Stof.

Den lil Oxalsyre bundne Mængde CaO udgjorde 1,38 "/o. Resten 1,62 "/O,

har fortrinsvis været lil Siede som Citrat, Malal og Succinal.
54,0 "/o af Ca O-Mængden har ikke været bundet lil Oxalsyre.

Rhamnus Frangula.

Figurerne 9 a og ft og 9 c viser Yderbark af et Aarsskud og en 4-aarig Gren
med en Slimcelle og primære Bastceller; Fig. 9 d viser Inderbarken af en 6-aarig
Gren med et enkelt Lag sekundære Baslceller. Yderbarkens Krystalstjerner er ofte
slørre end Inderbarkens.

Tilstedeværelsen af Krystalstjerner og Enkeltkrystaller er almindelig beskrevet
i Litteraturen, og Saltet angives at være Kalciumoxalat.

Kemisk Undersøgelse.

a) Droge. Anvendt 15 Grm. lufllorret Slof.
1) I det vandige Udtræk fandtes:

101

Svovlsyre. Fosfor- og Garvesyre. Æble- og Ravsyre, ret rigelig
Mængde.
2) I det sallsure Udtræk fandtes:

Oxalsyre. Citronsyre, ringe Mængde. Æble- og Ravsyre, ringe
Mængder.
Ved Glødning af Kalciumoxalatet fandtes 1,27 "/o CaO.

Fig. 9 a.

Fig. 9 b.

Fig. 9 c. Fig- 9 d.

3) Kalkfældende Syrer, som havde været lil Siede i alkalibnnden eller
fri Tilstand:

Svovlsyre. Æble- og Ravsyre, ret rigelig Mængde.

4) Vand 8,07 "o. Aske 4,65"/». I Saltsyre uopløselig Rest af Aske 0,10 »;o.
C« O 3,17 "(1. Svovlsyre 0,80 "/o. All i liiftlorret Slof.

102

Den til Oxalsyre bundne Mængde CaO udgjorde 1,27 "o. Resten,
1,90 "/o, har fortrinsvis været til Stede som Malat, Succinat og
Citrat.
59,94 ^'/o af Ca O-Mængden har ikke været bundet til Oxalsyre.
b) Bark af unge Grene med Udeladelse af Aarsskudet. Materialet indsamlede
jeg i Juli. Den strax aftagne Bark tørredes og anvendtes senere til
Undersøgelsen. Anvendt 15 Grm. lufttørret Stof.

1) I det vandige Udtræk fandtes:

Svovlsyre. Fosfor- og Garvesyre. Citronsyre, ringe Mængde. Æble-
og Ravsyre, ret rigelige Mængder.

2) 1 del saltsure Udtræk fandtes:

Oxalsyre. Citronsyre, ringe Mængde. Æble- og Ravsyre.
Ved Glødning af Kalciunioxalatet fandtes 0,57 "/d CaO.

3) Kalkfældende Syrer, som havde været til Stede i alkalibundeii eller
fri Tilstand.

Svovlsyre, Æblesyre. Ravsyre.

4) Vand 7,20 »/u. Aske 3,64 "/o. I Saltsyre uopløselig Rest af Aske 0,10"'».
CaO 1,65 "/o. Alt i lufttørret Stof.

Den til Oxalsyre bundne Mængde Ca O udgjorde 0,57 "o. Resten,
1,08 "/ii, har fortrinsvis været til Stede som Malat, Succinat og
Citrat.

65,45 "/u af Ca O-Mængden har ikke været bundet til Oxalsyre.

Althaea officinalis.
Roden indeholder Krystalstjerner saa vel i Bark som i Ved, som Regel en enkelt i
hver Celle, Fig. 10 a. De Celler, som indeholder Kryslalstjernerne, er hyppigt ordnede

Fi". III a.

Fia. 1(1 (>.

i korte lodrelle Rækker. Forekomsten er almindelig angivet i Litteraturen, og Saltet
betegnes som Kalciumoxalat: Fliickiger^-'), Pag. 374; Arlhur Meyer'-), Bd. I, Pag. 230:

103

Jos. Moellei-äR), Pag. 365; Tschirch^^)^ Pag. 127; Hartwich ■"•), Bd. I, Pag. 476; Plaiu-lion
& Collin-'»), Bd. VI, Pag. 703. — Gilg"), Pag. 210, angiver: Oxalatdruser i Bark- og
Vedparenkyni, af Krystaller forekommer knn Oxalatdruser.

Jeg har desuden paavist Sfærokrystaller, som i Regelen er ordnet i Grupper
og al lid aflejret i Slimcellerne, Fig. 10 b. Sfæriterne er opløselige i Vand; de kan
iagttages i Snit, som indlægges i Vinaand eller Glycerin og Vinaand. Tages Snittene
af Droge, som har henstaaet nogle Dage i Vinaand eller fortyndet Vinaand, kan
man til de i fortyndet Vinaand indlagte Snit sætte Vand, hvorved Slimen opløses,
medens Sfæriterne en Tid bliver uopløste. Snit af Spiritus-Materiale taaler endog
Indlægning i Kloral {ö-^2Aq), uden at Sfæriterne strax opløses. Ved Tilsætning
af Svovlsyre dannes talrige Gipsnaale.

Det var mig paafaldende, at Tschirch, som har beskrevet Slimcellerne udvik-
lingshistorisk , ikke har set Sfæriterne, uagtet han ved disse Undersøgelser har
maattet anvende Vinaand som Indlægningsmedium. Jeg antager, at Forklaringen
kan søges i følgende Forhold. Medens Sfæriternes Forekomst i de dyrkede Planters
kødede Rødder er saa rigelig og almindelig, at jeg ikke mindes at have set nogen
Slimcelle, som ikke indeholdt dem, er Forekomsten i ikke-kødede Rødder sparsom.
1 Materiale fra den herværende botaniske Have kunde jeg vel paavise Tilstede-
værelsen, men ikke almindeligt.

Kemisk Undersøgelse. Anvendt lo Grm. Pulver, som udrortes med Vand og
behandledes i Dialysator. De fremstillede Dialysater koncentreredes paa Vandbad,
og Kalksaltene udfældedes ved Tilsætning af Vinaand.

1) I det vandige Udtræk fandtes:

Svovlsyre. Fosforsyre. Citronsyre, ringe Mængde. Æble- og Ravsyre,
rigelige Mængder.

2) I det saltsure Udtræk fandtes:

Oxalsyre, Citronsyre, ret rigelig Mængde. Æble- og Ravsyre.
Ved Glødning af Kalciumoxalatet fandtes 0,14"/» Ca O.

3) Kalkfældende Syrer, som havde været til Stede i alkalibunden eller fri
Tilstand.

Svovlsyre. Citronsyre, ret rigelig Mængde. Æblcsyre, rigelig Mængde.

Ravsyre, ret rigelig Mængde.
Ved Bestemmelsen af Æblesyrens Ækvivalenttal fandtes dette al

være 68,0.

4) Vand 10,33";«. Aske 5,70 "/o. 1 Saltsyre uopløselig Rest af Aske 0,39 ",o.
CaO 1,07 "/cj. (Ved en Bestemmelse, som foretoges uden Udfældning af
Fosforsyre og Jern fandtes nøjagtigt samme Tal). Svovlsyre 1,48 "o. Alt
i lufttørret Stof.

Den til Oxalsyre bundne Mængde Ca O udgjorde 0,14 "u. Resien, 0,93 "/o,

har fortrinsvis været til Stede som Citrat, Maiat og Succinat.
86,92 "o af Ca O-Mængden har ikke været bundet lil Oxalsyre.

I). li II. Villl•ll^k. Selsk. Sl,r.. 7. HiuUlic. llntiirvidensk. a^ m:illieni, Al'il. VIII 2. 14

,<<.

Exogomiim Purga. (Tuber Jalapae).
Rodknoldens Bark- og Vedpaienkym indeholder Kiystalstjeniei-, Fig. II. Ofte
er Cellerne, som indeholder Kalksaltet, ordnet i lodrette Rækker. Krystalstjernerne
er almindelig kendt og beskrevet som Kalciumoxalat. Ved Re-
handling af Snit med Klorammoniumopløsning (20 "/o) opløses
Krystalstjernerne langsomt.

Kemisk Undersøgelse. Anvendt 20 Grm. lufttørret Stof, som
befriedes fra begge Former af Harpix ved Perkolering med Vin-
aand og Æter.

1) I det vandige Udtræk fandtes:

Svovlsyre. Fosfor- og Garvesyre. Citronsyre, ringe
Mængde. Æblesyre, rigelig Mængde. Ravsyre, ret

Kig. 11.

rigelig Mængde.

ligelig Mængde.

Æbk

2) I det saltsure Udtræk fandtes:

Oxalsyre. Fosfor- og Garvesyre. Citronsyre, ret

og Ravsyre, mindre Mængder.
Ved Glødning af Kalciumoxalatel fandtes 0,15 "/u CaO.
?>) Kalkfældende Syrer, som havde været til Stede i alkalibunden eller fri
Tilstand :
Svovlsyre. Fosfor- og Garvesyre. Citronsyre, ringe Mængde. Æblesyre,

rigelig Mængde. Ravsyre, ret rigelig Mængde.
Ved Bestemmelsen af Æblesyrens Ækvivalenttal fandtes dette at være 69,0.
4) Vand 9,0ô "/o. Aske 3,59 "/o. I Saltsyre uopløselig Rest af Aske 0,09 "/u.
CaO 1,39 "/u. Svovlsyre 0,61 »/o. Alt i lufttørret Stof.
Den til Oxalsyre bundne Mængde CaO udgjorde 0,15"/". Resten, 1,24 "/o,

har fortrinsvis va'i-et til Stede som Citrat, Malat og Succinat.
87,05 "/o af Ca O-Mængden har ikke vaMet bundet til Oxalsyre.

Rheum species. (Rhizoma Rhei).

Fig. 12 gengiver Krystalstjerner af Rabarber. Saltet er
almindelig angivet at væ're Kalciumoxalat. I Snit, som
henlægges i Klorammoniumopløsning (20"/»), kan man selv
efter lanigère Tids Indvirkning ikke iagttage nogen Opløs-
ning af Krystalstjernerne.

Fliickiger-'"'), Pag. 403, angiver Indholdet af Aske i ved
100° tørret Stof til 13,87 "/u. Asken bestod overvejende af
Kalcium- og Kaliumkarbonat, samt lidt Lerjord (1 "/o) og
Magnium. I en Rabarber med 12,9 "/o Aske bestemte F.
ved direkte Titrering med Kaliumpermanganatopløsning
Oxalatmængden til 7,33'

og beregner heraf, at under

Halvdelen af Kalcium var bundet til Oxalsyre. Det er

denne Analyse, som iiar dannet Forbilledet for Kraus' Forsøgsrække.

Kig. V2.

35 105

At Mængden af Kalciunioxalal vexier stærkt i Rabarber, er et Forhold, som
længe har været kendt. Farmakopeerne forlanger som Regel en oxalatrig Droge
(den skal knase ved Tygning).

Askemængden angives i"') Bd. X, Pag. 629 for Shensi-Rabarber til 19,4 "/o, for
Kanton-R. til 7,92 «/u og for Szechuen-R. til 4,17 "lo. Pag. 630 angives Indhold af
Kalciumoxalat og Æblesyre.

Kemisk Undersøgelse.

a) Kanton-Rabarber.

Sallsurt Udtræk: Ved Glødning af Kalciumoxalatet fandtes 0,39 "/u Ca O.
De kalkfældende Syrer af det vandige Udtræk var Æble- og Ravsyre.
Ved Bestemmelsen af Æblesyrens Ækvivalenttal fandtes dette at være 66,0
Vand 9,25 "/o. Aske 3,67 "/o. I Saltsyre uopløselig Rest af Aske 0,10 "/o.

Ca O 0,73 "/o. Svovlsyre 0,40 "/o. Alt i lufttørret Stof.
Den til Oxalsyre bundne Mængde Ca O udgjorde 0,39 "/o. Resten, 0,34 "/o,

har forlrinsvis været til Stede som Malat og Succinal. (Citronsyre

forekom mig at være til Stede i det saltsure Udtræ>k, men Stahres

Reaktion forløb ikke utvivlsomt).
46,58 "/u af Ca O-Mængden har ikke været bundet til Oxalsyre.

b) Shensi-Rabarber.

Saltsurl Udtræk: Ved Glødning af Kalciumoxalatet fandtes 8,90 "'d CaO.
Vand 5,73 "u. Aske 14,92 "/o. I Saltsyre uopløselig Rest af Aske 0,09 ";o.

CnO 10,45 "/o.
Den til Oxalsyre bundne Mængde Ca O udgjorde 8,90 "lo. Resten, 1,55 "lo,

har fortrinsvis været til Stede som Malat og Succinal.
14,83 "o af Ca O-Mængden har ikke været bundet til Oxalsyre.

Dahlia species.
Rodknolden indeholder Kalksall, som har Form af Sfæriter.

Kemisk Undersøgelse.

Sallsurt Udlræk: Ved Glodning af Kalciumoxalatet fandtes 0,11 "o CaO

i oprindeligt Stof, svarende til 0,43 "/o i TørsloHel.
Vandigt Udtræk: Af kalkfældende Syrer paavistes i rigelig Mængde Æble-
syre, samt Ravsyre.
Ved Bestemmelsen af Æbles3'rens Ækvivalentlal fandtes delle al være 66,0.
Vand 76,73 "/o. Aske 1,52 "o. I Saltsyre uopløselig Rest af Aske 0,14 "/o.
Ca O 0,41 "/». Svovlsyre 0,20 "/o.
Beregnet paa Tørslof faas følgende Tal :

Aske 6,55 "/ii. I Saltsyre uopløselig Resi af Aske 0,61"/o. CaO 1,75 "/o.

Svovlsyre 0,77 "/o.
Den til Oxalsyre bundne Mængde CaO udgjorde 0,11 "/«. (= 0,43 "/o paa

14*

106

3fi

Tørstof). Resten 0,30 "/n (.= 1,32 "/(> paa Tørstol) hai- l'ortrinsvis værd
til Stede som Malal og Succinat.
73,04 "/o af Ca O-Mængden har ikke værcl bundet lil Oxalsyre.

Qiiillaja saponaria.
Barken indeholder talrige store, prismatiske Enkeltkrystaller, Fig. 13 a. De
findes almindelig omtalt i Litteraturen og angives al være Kalciumoxalal. Holmks"),
190(5 I, Pag. 315, beskriver en falsk Kvillajabark, der ligesom Barken aï Q. saponnria

indeholder prismatiske Krystaller
af Kalciumsulfat. Antagelig kan
denne Angivelse føres tilbage til
Otto Bekg, som''') og"'), angiver,
at Krystallerne i Q. saponaria, Gua-
jacum officinale m. 0. er Kalcium-

sulfat. Fliickiger

'), Pag. 615, har

Indholdet af Kalciumoxalal (med
lidt Tartrat) andrager ll,5"/o; Aske-
mængden over 13"/". Wiesner"),
Bd. 1, Pag. 765, har ordret Fliickigers
^3^5 Angivelse. Foruden Prismer angi-

hJS ves der af Jos. Moeller (')•'■").

Fig. 13&. Bd. X, 1908, Pag. 539: sjældnere

Romboedre, Druser eller Krystal-
sand.

Jeg har paavist Kryslalstjerner
og Sfæriter, Fig. 13 h, i mindre Antal end de slore Enkeltkryslaller. De lo første
Former er opløselige i Klorammonium.

Kemisk Undersøgelse.

Sallsurl Udtræk: Ved Glødning af Kalciumoxalatel fandtes 11,80 "/o CaO.
Vand 7,82 "/o. Aske 20,08 "/u. I Saltsyre uopløselig Resi af Aske 0,63 "/o.

Fig. 13 a.

CaO 15,68 "/o. Svovlsyre 1,07'

All i lufUørret Slof.

Den lil Oxalsyre bundne Mængde CaO udgjorde 11,80 "/o. Resien, 3,88 "/o,
har Vieret lil Siede som Salte af andre organiske, kalkfældende Syrer,
jeg har paavisl og idenlificerel Ravsyre, medens det kan anses som sand-
synligt, al Sfærilerne er Malal og en Del af Stjernerne Citrat.

32,88 "/o af Ca O-Mængden har ikke været bundet til Oxalsyre.

Begonia argyrostignia.

Jeg skal endelig anføre Resultalel af Undersøgelser, som jeg har foretaget af
Begonieblade. Det fremgaar af Litteraturen, se bl. a. Solercder "), Pag. 453, og jeg
* Artiklen er ilike forsynet med Aiitormærke og skyldes vel P.cdaktorcn.

37 107

har l'undül det bekræftet ved egne Undersøgelser, at Kalksaltel findes udskilt i tor-
skellig F'orm inden for Begoniaceae. Snart er det som Enkeltkrystaller, snart som
Konglomerater, som Stjerner eller Blandinger af alle Former. Mængden af udskilt
Kalksalt fandt jeg meget vexlende. Til kemisk Undersøgelse er anvendt B. argy-
rostigma, hvoraf Hr. Slotsgartner Paludan stillede to Exemplarer til min Raadighed.

Bladene af det første Exemplar vejede i frisk Tilstand 61 Grm., efter Tørring
ved lOO"" c. 5 Grm., altsaa med et Vandindhold af e. 92 "/o. I Bladenes Tørstof fore-
toges følgende Bestemmelser: Aske 9,87 "lu. I Saltsyre uopløselig Rest af Aske 0,22 "/u.
Ca O 2,90 "lo.

Det fremgik iøvrigt af Undersøgelsen, at Bladene maatle indeholde en for-
holdsvis rigelig Mængde let opløseligt Oxalat. Med det andet Eksemplar, hvis Blade
i frisk Tilstand vejede liG Grm., foretoges Undersøgelsen derfor paa den Maade, al
de friske Blade først blev udtrukket med Vinaand 2 Gange (hver Gang med An-
vendelse af c. 4(10 Gem.). De udtrukne Blade torredes og pulveriseredes. I en
Portion paa 0,876 Grm. bestemtes Tørstofmængden til 0,858 Grm, og, beregnet paa
Torstof, Aske 12,82 "/u. I Saltsyre uopløselig Rest af Aske 0,12 "/o. CaO 5,36";».
Svovlsyre 1,96 "/o.

Resien af de torrede Blade blev udtrukket med fortyndet Vinaand (2 -f 1 Aq).
De samlede vinaandige Udtræk behandledes paa Vandbad og til den vandige, eddike-
sure Opløsning saltes Kalciumacetat, hvorved der fremkom et rigeligt Bundfald af
Kalciumoxalat.

I det saltsure Udtr;ek af Bladene fandtes ved Glødning af Kalciumoxalalel
4,02 »/o Ca O (paa Tørstof).

Den til Oxalsyre bundne Mængde CaO udgjorde 4,02 "H. Resien, 1,34 "/o, har
været til Stede som Salte af andre kalkfteldende, organiske Syrer, hvoraf jeg har
identificeret Ravsyre og mener at have paavist Citronsyre.

24,97 "'o af Ca O-Mængden har ikke været bundet til Oxalsyre.

III. Bemærkninger til tidligere og egne Undersøgelser.

Som del fremgaar af de ovenfor meddelte Undersøgelser, har jeg i en Række
Droger af over- og underjordiske Organer, saa.vel som i nogle friske Planteorganer,
paavist en ganske almindelig Forekomst af kalkfældende organiske Syrer. Efter de
ved Undersøgelsen fundne P^orhold er Syrerne til Stede dels i alkalibunden eller
fri Tilstand, dels som Kalk- og i mindre Grad som Magnesiasalte (første Aars Blade
af Hyoscyamus niger indeholder dog en» rigelig Mængde Magnesiasalte, hvad der
fremgik af den seje BeskalTenhed af Bundfaldet, som fremkom ved Tilsætning af
Vinaand til det vandige Udtræk af Bladene, lige som det vil ses af den kvantitative
Bestemmelse af samlet CaO og Mg O). Medens Oxalsyre i flere Tilfælde slet ikke

108 38

fandtes til Stede, paavistes den i andre Tilfælde i forskellig stor Mængde. I alle
Tilfælde indeholdt Stofferne — uanset om Oxalsyre var til Stede eller ej — andre
kalkfældende organiske Syrer, som Citron- Æble- og Ravsyre, til Dels som Kalk-
salte. Naar Tilstedeværelsen af disse Kalksalte i Drogerne er undgaaet saa mange
Iagttageres Opmærksomhed, saaledes som det vil fremgaa af den ved de enkelte
Undersøgelser citerede Litteratur, har dette sin Grund i forskellige Forhold, som et
af de væsenligste maa anføres, at man, som Pfeffer trælTende siger, i alt for over-
vejende Grad har havt Opmærksomheden henvendt paa Oxalsyren, idet man har
betegnet det Kalksalt, som ikke hurtigt opløstes i Eddikesyre, som Kalciumoxalat.
Jeg ser herved bort fra ældre Forfatteres Forvexling af Kalciumoxalat med -sulfat
(Model, Otto Berg o. fl.).

Stærkest udpræget fremgaar dette af Analyserne af Altæa- og Jalaperod. hvis
Krvstalstjerner ganske almindeligt er antaget at være Kalciumoxalat, skønt de kun
for en meget ringe Del bestaar af dette Salt. Tilsvarende, om end mindre udpræget,
er Forholdet ved de fleste af de andre undersøgte Droger, f. Ex. Krystalstjernerne i
Granat- og Tørstetræbark. I mange Tilfælde tør det vel endog antages, at Krystal-
stjerneformen netop fremkommer som en Følge af forskelligartede Saltes Udkry-
stallisation. Om end Antallet af de undersøgte Plantedele har maattet begrænses,
vil det være tilstrækkeligt stort til at vise, at den af Pfeffer fremsatte Antagelse,
efter hvilken Kalciumcitrat kun undtagelsesvis findes udkrystalliseret i Planlerne,
ikke er rigtig. Jeg maa iøvrigt her tilføje, at mikroskopiske og mikrokemiske
Undersøgelser, som jeg har foretaget af en Række andre Droger, staar i Samklang
med de anførte udførlige Analyser. Lettere opløselige Kalksalte forekommer her-
efter, alene eller sammen med Kalciumoxalat, i Blade af andre Mentha-Arter,
Rosmarinus off., Cnicus benedictus , i Rødder af Cichorium Intybus, Taraxacum off.,
i Stængelen af Solanum dulcamara m. fl. Det maa da tvært imod antages, at Citratet
hyppigt forekommer udkrystalliseret og sikkert ogsaa sammen med lettere opløse-
lige Kalksalte: Malat og Succinat. Det drejer sig jo i saa Henseende kun om de
paagældende Organers eller Cellers Vandholdighed. At de lettere opløselige Kalk-
salte i andre Tilfælde forekommer i opløst Tilstand i de friske Organer, er sikkert.
Ved Undersøgelse af friske Blade af Tussilago Farfarus, Mentha-Arter, Cnicus bene-
dictus fandt jeg ikke Kalksalt udskilt; derimod dannedes der Gipsnaale med Svovlsyre,
og efter Tørring eller Indlægning i Vinaand viste Snit, som indlagdes i Glycerin -f
Vinaand, udkrystalliseret Kalksalt. Det viste sig tillige ved disse Forsøg, at Tørring
i Luften og Indlægning af det friske Materiale i Vinaand har Indflydelse paa den
Form, i hvilken Kalksaltet udkrystalliserer. Blade af Mentha-Arter viste saaledes
Kalksaltet udskilt som Sfæriter i de lufttørrede Blade, medens det i Spiritu.s-Materiale
var udskilt som løse Stjerner. Ved Undersøgelse af friske Fingerbølblade har jeg
fundet løst byggede Krystalstjerner i Svampparenkymet, medens Sfæriterne ikke
var udskilt.

I Anledning af Schimpcrs og Wehmers modstridende Angivelser om Opløselig-
heden af det i forskellige Blade indeholdte Kalciumoxalat skal jeg bemæ'rke, at

39 109

Krystalstjernernc i Ciataegusbladet, som det vil ses af min Analyse ikke eller kun
til Dels bestaar af Kalciunioxalat. Det har været mig paafaldende, at man har
turdet udtale noget Skon om hvorvidt Crataegusbladets Krystalstjerner undergaar
en Formindskelse i Antal eller ej. Det er meget vanskeligt at se Krystalsljernerne
i dette Blad, vel særlig paa Grund af Hudens Slimindhold. Det ses da ogsaa, at
Wehmer har følt sig besværet af dette Forhold, som han søger at afhjælpe ved
forudgaacnde Behandling med Svovlsyrling. Hvor let der kan indsnige sig lagt-
tagelsesfejl ved denne Art Undersøgelser, vil følgende Forhold vise. Ved hidlægning
af Snit af Crataegusblade — unge og gamle — i Kloral (5-1-2 Aq) iagttog jeg, at
der efter nogen Tids Forløb dannedes Gipsnaale. Ved yderligere Forsøg fandt
jeg, at dette sker overalt, hvor man anvender Materiale, som indeholder lettere
opløseligt Kalksalt. Forklaringen er den, at der opløses Kalksalt, som omsætter sig
med Kaliumsulfat under Dannelse af Gipsnaale. Der foregaar altsaa en Opløsning
af Kalksalt, som Schimper og Wehmer slet ikke har iagttaget ved deres Under-
søgelser, som var rettet mod de Forandringer, Kalksaltet eventuelt undergik.

De af Kraus anstillede Forsøg, ved hvilke han paa Grundlag af kvantitative
Bestemmelser mener at have bevist, at Kalciumoxalatct ved Væxtperiodens hid-
træden genoptages i Stofskiftet i saa betydelig Grad, at han vil have paavist en
Formindskelse af indtil ca 60 ■' u af Oxalatet, imødegaas af Czapek, der betragter de
formentlige Mindreindhold af Kalciunioxalat som Resultater af ledsagende sekundære
Fænomener af de livligt foregaaende Omsætninger i Organerne. Det er mig ikke
klart, hvilke Fænomener C. har for Øje, og under Hensyn til, at C. andet Steds
bestemt udtaler, at de paa mikroskopiske og mikrokemiske Iagttagelser grundede
Forsøg bør støttes ved kvantitative Bestemmelser, synes det mig ikke konsekvent
at ville afkræfte Kraus' Resultater ved en Henvisning til Wehmers paa et Skøn
hvilende Iagttagelser. Noget andet er, at Kraus' formentlige Beviser i Virkeligheden
er saa svagt begrundede, at det — uagtet Arbejdsmetoden er ganske mangelfuldt
angivet — kan ses, at Resultaterne af hans anselige F'orsøgsrække ikke kan være
rigtige.

Da der er angivet Tal, kan der ses bort fra de besynderlige Angivelser i Volumen
af det anvendte Stofs Mængde, af Tørstoffet og af Oxalatet. Ved de sammenlignende
Bestemmelser er der imidlertid strax et Forhold, som er iøjnefaldende. K. gaar ud
fra, at to lige store Rodstokke af Rumex obtusifoliiis eller to lige store Axetlele af
Træer indeholder samme Mængde Kalciumoxalat. Det er en Forudsætning, som
sikkert er uholdbar, og hvis Indflj'dclse paa Resultaterne er uberegnelig. Den
anvendte Arbejdsmetode er — som anført — ikke nærmere angivet og navnlig
gælder dette Detailler vedrørende Bestemmelsen af Kalciumoxalatet, om hvilken
der kun anføres, at den er foretaget ved Titrering med Kaliumpermanganat. For-
udsætningen for denne Metodes Anvendelighed er, at Kaliumoxalatet foreligger i
ren Tilstand, men denne Fordring er sikkert ikke fyldestgjort ved Kraus' Forsøg,
hvad der bl. a. kan sluttes deraf, at den oprindelig paatænkte Anvendelse af Rabarber
som Forsøgsmateriale maalle opgives, fordi det paa Grund af Rabarberens andre

no 40

Indholdssloffcr var umuligt at vinde Oxalate! i saa ren Tilstand, som nødvendigt
for dets Titrering. Andet Materiale fandtes da bedre anvendeligt. Del kan ikke
ses, om K. har foretaget Titreringerne direkte i det saltsure Udtiæk eller med
Anvendelse af et af disse Udtræk fremstillet Raa-Oxalat. En Renfremstilling, f. Ex.
gennem Blysaltet, har ikke fundet Sted. Det benyttede Oxalat har altsaa været
urent, det har indeholdt „organisk Stof" og sandsynligvis Kalksalte af Citron-,
Æble- og Ravsyre, som alle med Undtagelse af Succinatet allarver Kaliumperman-
ganat, og naar K. gennemgaaende har fundet et Mindreforbrug af Kaliumpermanganat
efter Væxtperiodens Indtræden, kan dette muligvis tale for, at der er foregaaet en
Opløsning og et Forbrug af Citrat og Malat, men som Bevis for Kalciumoxalatets
Genoptagelse i Stofskiftet er Forsøgsrækken ikke skikket. De mærkelige Spring i
Udslagene, som flere af Forsøgene udviser, peger mod Metodens primitive Art.

De mikroskopiske Reaktioners Paalidelighed som Identifikationsmidier over
for forskellige Kalksalte er bestridt af Wehmer, der er af den Anskuelse, at Kalcium-
oxalatets mikroskopiske Karakteristik hyppig er vanskelig, og at andet Kalksalt ikke
sjældent uden tilstrækkelig Grund er betegnet som Kalciumoxalat. Wehmers Opm;eik-
somhcd er særlig rettet mod Forvexling med Citrat, han gaar endog saa vidt, al
luin udtaler som sin Anskuelse, at Fanerogamers Sfærokrystaller og Rafider bestaar
af Kalciumcitrat. Wehmers Tvivl om den mikrokemiske Karakteristiks Paalidelighed
begrundes ved hans Erkendelse af, al Kalciumcilrat ikke kan ansees som let
opløseligt i Eddikesyre og under Forudsætning af at der foreligge]- ki-ystallinsk (og
ikke for smaa-kryslallinsk) Kalciumcilrat, er denne Opfattelse jo korrekt.

Om Kalciumoxalatets Forhold over for Kaliumhydroxyd er Angivelserne lige-
ledes uoverensstemmende. Efter den almindelige Opfattelse af Forholdet er Saltet
uopløseligt i Kaliumhydroxydopløsning. Sanio') har imidlertid iagttaget og først
angivet, at Kalciumoxalatkryslaller ved Behandling under Dækglas med Kalium-
hydroxydopløsning først blev uforandiet, men eller nogen Tids Forløb — ofte
Timer — pludselig opløstes, i del der i Vædsken dannedes ny Krystaller, der havde
Form som sexsidede Tavler, men hvis Sammensætning endnu ikke er oplyst. Denne
ganske objektive Fremstilling er af Kohl") tydet paa højst ejendommelig Maade.
For den rette Forstaaelse maa Kohls Karakteristik af Kalciumoxalatets Reaktioner,
Pag. VJ8, gengives i sin Helhed. „Kalciumoxalalel omdannes ved Glødning lil Kar-
bonat, det er uopløseligt i Eddikesyre, let opløseligt i Saltsyre, Saltpetei-syre, Svovl-
syre og Klorzinkjod (som altid indeholder Sallsyie). Kalciummalat er opløseligt i
Vand, -tartrat og -citrat i Eddikesyre. En Forvexling med disse Salte er derfor
ikke mulig. Druesur Kalk har størst Lighed med Oxalat, begge ei- uopløselige i
Vand og Eddikesyre, opløselige i Mineralsyrer og Kaliumhydroxyilopløsning, men
ved Kalciumoxalatets Opløsning i Kaliumhydroxyd udskilles der i karakteiisliske
Former krystallinsk Kalium-Kalciumdobbeltsall, medens det druesure Kalium-Kalciuni-
salt forbliver i Opløsning" !

Ved mine Undersøgelser har jeg, som allei-ede anføit, bestandig sammenholdt
Resultaterne af den kemiske og mikroskopiske Analyse og bl. a. ogsaa provel de

111

forskellige Kalksallcs Forhold over for Kaliiimhydroxyd. VA som Kalciumeilral
bestemt Salt viste ved Indlægning i Kaliumhydroxydopløsning det af Sanio for
Oxalat angivne Forhold; efter nogen Tids Forløb opløstes Citratet, og der udskiltes
hurtigt Krystaller, der for største Delen havde Form som sexsidedc Tavler, Fig. 14 a
og b. Ganske det samme Forhold paavistc jeg derefter ved tilsvarende Behandling
af Kalciummalat og -oxalat. Naai' der til saadanne Præparater sattes Eddikesyre,
opløstes Krystallerne under Kulsyreudvikiing. Det kunde heraf skønnes, at der

Fig. 14 b.

Fi'J. 14 a.

Fig. 15.

foregik en Dobbelt-Dekomposition under Dannelse af Kaliumcitrat, -malat og -oxalat,
og Kalciumhydroxyd, som efter Indsugning af Luftens Kulsyre udskiltes som Kar-
bonat. For nærmeie at prøve delte Forhold, foretoges nedennævnte Forsøg.

1) Kornet-krystallinsk Kalciumoxalat, fremstillet ved Tilsætning af opløst Kal-
ciumacetat til en kogende Opløsning af Kaliumoxalat. Det udvadskede
Bundfald tørredes ved 100°.

0,2015 Grm. Oxalat bragtes i en fladbundet Glasskaal og overhældtes med
50 Gem. af en 5 "/o's /\0//-Opløsning. Efter l'/:i Døgns Henstand udførtes
følgende Bestemmelser: Vædsken frafiltreredes, Skaal og Filter udvadskedes
med kogende Vand. Filtratet overmættedes med Eddikesyre, og til den
kogende Vædske sattes Kalciumacetat, hvorved der fremkom et rigeligt
Bundfald. Efter Henstand til næste Dag bestemtes Mængden af CaO. Der
fandtes 0,074 Grm. CaO. 0,203 Grm. CaC,0^ -f 1 Aq giver teoretisk 0,07785
Grm. CaO.

Det i Skaalen og paa Filtret tilbageblevne Karbonat behandledes med
fortyndet Eddikesyre (Kulsyreudvikling) og udvadskedes. Til det kogende
F^iltrat sattes Ammoniumoxalatopløsning. Efter Henstand frafiltreredes Bund-
faldet, udvadskedes, og Mængden af CaO bestemtes. Der fandtes 0,072 Grm. CaO.

2) Krystallinsk Kalciumoxalat, fremstillet af ovennævnte kornet-krystallinske
Salt, som opløstes i fortyndet Saltsyre og genudfældedes af den kogende
Opløsning ved lidt efter lidt at tilsætte en kogende Opløsning af Natrium-
acetat. Det saaledes fremstillede Kalciumoxalat er vist i Fig. 15.

0,218 Grm. ved 100° tørret Kalciumoxalat overhældtes med 50 Gem. 5 "/o's
A'0//-Oplosning. Efter Henstand udførtes paa ovennævnte Maade Bestem-

I). K- 1). Viclcnsk. Sfisk. Skr.. 7. Hu'kkc, lüiturviikMisk. o« nuillu'ui Afil. VIII. 2.

112 42

meiser af CaO-Mængden i Kalciumoxalaterne, der fremstilledes af Kalium-
oxalatopløsningen og det udskilte Kalciumkaibonat.
Der fandtes lienhoidsvis 0,084 og 0,082 Grm. CnO.
0,218 Grm. CaC.^0^^ 1 Aq giver teoretisk 0,0830 Grm. CaO.
3) Krystallinsk Kalciumcitrat fremstillet af Citronsyre ved at mætte en 0])løs-
ning med Kaliumkarbonat og til denne Oplosning at sætte Kalciumacetat og
Ammoniak. Ved Kogning udskiltes Kalciumcitratet, som
frafiltreredes og udvadskedes med kogende Vand. Af det
lufttørrede Kalciumcitrat, Fig. 16, afvejedes 0,253 Grm.,
som efter 2 Døgns Henstand i Exsikkator viste uforandret
Vægt. Citratet behandledes med /vO//-Opløsning, som anført,
og CoO-Mængden bestemtes i Kalciumoxalatet, der frem-
stilledes af det udskilte Kalciumkarbonat.

Der fandtes 0,073 Grm. CaO = 0,0521 Grm. Ca.
0,253 Grm. Kalciumcitrat -\- 4 Aq giver teoretisk 0,0533
Grm. Ca.
Ved el gentaget Forsøg med Kalciumcitrat tørredes en vejet Mængde ved
100°. Efter at Saltet havde henstaaet henholdsvis 3 og 4 T. i Tørrekassen,
vejedes det, og det kunde da skønnes, at Saltet tabte Krystalvand. Ved
2 Døgns Henstand under Glasklokke tog det til i Vægt, uden helt at naa
den oprindelige Vægt af det lufttørrede Stof.

Vægt af lufttørret Citrat 0,213 Grm.; efter Tørring i 3 T. 0,192, efter
4 T. 0,191, efter Henstand i 2 Døgn under Glasklokke 0,207.

Citratet behandledes med A'0//-O,pløsning, og CaO-Mængden bestemtes i
Kalciumoxalatet, som fremstilledes af det udskilte Karbonat.
Der fandtes 0,062 Grm. CaO = 0,0443 Grm. Ca.

0,0207 Grm. Kalciumcitrat -j- 4 i4q' giver teoretisk 0,0436 Grm. Ca., altsaa et
lidt lavere Tal, som skyldes Tabet af Krystalvand. Beregnes Ca-Mængden
af den oprindelige lufttørrede Stofmængde, 0,213 Gim., faas 0,0448 Grm. Ca.
Dekompositionen kan altsaa foregaa kvantitativt, og Forsøgene viser, hvor
blottet for Grund Kohls ovennævnte Angivelser er. Forsøgene forklarer paa lignende
Maade Iagttagelser, jeg tidligere havde gjort ved Undersøgelser af Bulmeurtblades
og andre kalciumoxalatholdige Drogers Forhold over for Kaliumhydroxyd. Ind-
lægges Snit af Bladet under Dækglas i Kaliumhydroxydopløsning opløses (dekom-
poneres) Oxalatet, og Kalciumkarbonatet udskilles hyppigst uden for Snittet. Ved
Indlægning af c. 1 Kvadratctm. store Stykker af Bladet i Opløsningen, hvorved jeg
benyttede smaa Glasskaale, foregik Dekompositionen ligeledes i 1 à 2 Døgn. Disse
og andre Erfaringer, som jeg har gjort ved nærværende Arbejde, har bibragt mig
Overbevisningen om, at den exakte Adskillelse af Kalksaltene ikke kan foietages
mikrokemisk. Denne Opfattelse ændres ikke ved Behrens' udførlige Vejledning til
mikrokemiske Analyser^"*), der er udarbejdet bl. a. paa Grundlag af Barfoeds orga-
niske Analyse. Behrens angiver bl. a. Metode til at adskille minimale Mængder

43 113

kalkfældende Syrer ad kombineret kemisk og mikroskopisk Vej. Saa vidt jeg efter
sammenlignende Forsøg har kunnet se, er Metoden (og hele Vejledningen) udarbejdet
paa Grundlag af Prøver, som har været anstillet med de kemisk rene Stofier. Under
saadaniie Forhold kan Metoden maaske være vejledende, medens den ikke har
Betydning ved Undersøgelsen af Plantestoffer.

Paa Foranledning af Wehmers Paavisning af Sandsynligheden for Forvexling
af Oxalat med Citrat ved Forsøg paa at adskille Kalksaltene gennem Forholdet
over for Eddikesyre, fremsætter Benecke '■'), Ønsket om, at der angives Metode for
en paalidelig mikrokemisk Adskillelse af disse Salte, idet han gaar ud fra, at Fler-
tallet i modsat Tilfælde — med Ret eller Uret — vil anse Kalksalt-Krystaller, som
modstaar Indvirkning af Eddikesyre ud over minutlang Iagttagelse, som Oxalat. I
Overensstemmelse med det ovenfor anførte, skal jeg hertil bemærke, at man heller
ikke ved Eddikesyre kan adskille Kalksaltene mikrokemisk. Kalciumcitrat vil i
langt længere Tid kunne modstaa Indvirkning af Eddikesyre, og det samme gælder
sandsynligvis under visse Forhold (Droger) Kalciummalat. Man kan da, om man
vil være paa den sikre Side, nøjes med at anføre Tilstedeværelsen af Kalksalt,
uden nærmere Betegnelse, eller man kan skønne, om der foreligger Kalciumoxalat
eller lettere opløseligt Kalksalt: Citrat, Malat, Succinat. Hertil kan man benytte
sig af Forholdet over for Klorammoniumopløsning, idet man i Glasskaal henlægger
Snit i Opløsningen, hvis Styrke bør være ca. 20 "'o. Opløses Krystallerne i Løbet af
nogle Timer, kan man slutte, at der ikke foreligger Kalciumoxalat. Drejer det sig
om Krystalstjerner, kan disse, som mine Undersøgelser viser, være sammensat af
Oxalat og lettere opløseligt Kalksalt. At amorf Kalciumcilrat er opløseligt i Klor-
ammonium er almindeligt angivet, derimod er det krystallinske Salts Forhold
angivet forskelligt. Rigtigt er det, at Kalciumcitrat, som er opløst i Klorammonium,
udskilles krystallinsk ved Kogning. Ved sammenlignende Forsøg har jeg l'undel,
at krystallinsk Salt ogsaa kan opløses, og jeg anser dette Forhold som en noget
paalideligere Prøve end Forholdet over for Eddikesyre. Forsøgene har jeg foretaget
med Anvendelse af krystallinsk Kalciumcitrat og Klorammoniumopløsninger, hvis
Styrke var 5, 1Ü og 20 "/u. Stof og Vædske bragtes i Erlenmeyerske Kolber og hen-
sattes ovenpaa en Varmtvandskasse, i hvilken Vandets Temperatur var 65°. Citratet
opløstes fuldstændigt i den 20 "/o's, meget vanskeligt i den 10 "/»'s og ikke eller
ganske ufuldstændigt i den 5 "/o's Klorammoniumopløsning.

De af Krans anstillede Forsøg, ved hvilke han påaviser Kalciumoxalatets del-
vise Oi)Iøselighed i svagere organiske Syrer, bringer jo i og for sig ikke noget Nyt.

Om Kalciumoxalatet er opløseligt i den levende Celle, som man almindelig
finder det angivet, er et Spørgsmaal, som har ligget uden for min Opgave. Der er,
som tidligere anført, af forskellige Forfattere fremsat Paastand herom, bl. a. af
Czapek, som dog i sin Biokemi tagei- Afstand fra disse Iagttagelser, af hvilke nmn
— efter C. — har draget for vidtgaaende Slutninger. Af mine Undersøgelser ovei-
Fennikelfrugter fremgaar det, at man er gaaet ud fra fejle Forudsætninger, idet
det indeholdte Kalksalt er Malat og Succinat; og min Analyse af Begonieblade

15*

114 44

viser, at lignende Foi hold har været til Stede her. Hvor vidt Kalciumoxalatet er
opløseligt i den levende Celle og nd over den ringe Opløselighed, som er mulig i
sur Vædske, er derfor et Spørgsmaal, som staar aabent. De hidtil fremsatte Iagt-
tagelser herom afgiver intet Bevis for delte Spørgsmaal.

Man plejer, siden Schleidens bekendte Undersøgelse over Kalciumoxalat i
Kaktusplanter, at finde disse Undersøgelser omtalt og kommenteret i Arbejder, der
vedrører Kalksalte i Planterne. Ved mine Undersøgelser har jeg ogsaa medtaget
en Type for denne P'amilie, men jeg fandt herved Forhold, som nødvendiggør
yderligere Undersøgelser, om hvilke jeg ved senere Lejlighed haaber at kunne
give Meddelelse.

IV. Sammenstilling af fundne Resultater.

I det foreliggende Arbejde er der tilsigtet ved sammenlignende kemisk og mi-
kroskopisk Undersøgelse at tilvejebringe et Materiale, som kunde tjene til Belysning
af Forhold vedrørende Planternes hidhold af Kalksalt. Paa Grundlag af mikro-
kemiske Iagttagelser havde jeg forud dels havt Grund til at antage, at meget som
Kalciumoxalat angivet Salt helt eller delvis bestod af andet Kalksalt og dels paa-
vist, at Angivelserne i Litteraturen, efter hvilke forskellige Droger (f. Ex. Blade af
Digitalis og Mentha-Arter) ikke skulde indeholde Kalksalt, maatte være urigtige,
idet jeg ved Tilsætning af Svovlsyre fandt, at der dannedes et mere eller mindre
rigeligt Antal Gipsnaale. Samtidig ønskede jeg saa vidt mulig at tilvejebringe For-
klaring paa de væsentlige Uoverensstemmelser mellem tidligere Arbejders Angivelser
vedrørende Kalciumoxalatets Opløselighedsforhold over for Reagentier og over for
dets Genoptagelse i Stofskiftet, saa vidt dette kunde oplyses gennem den anvendte
kemiske og mikroskopiske Undersøgelsesmetode.

Som Undersøgelsesobjekter er anvendt: Blade af Tiissilago Farfarus, Mentha
piperita , Pilocarpus spec. , Digitalis purpurea , Crataegus monogyna , Thea sinensis,
Hijoscyamus niger, Datura Stramonium og Begonia argyrostigma\ GrifVelgrene af Crocus
satious; Hark af Punica Granatum, Rhamnus Franyula og Quillaja saponaria; Rødder
og Rodstokke af Althaea officinalis, Exogonium Purga, Dahlia og Rheum.

Der er ved Undersøgelsen af disse Droger paavist:

1) En almindelig Forekomst af organiske kalkfældende Syrer; i en Del Tilfælde
fandtes Oxalsyre, i andre ikke; i alle Tilfælde paavistes andre organiske Syrer:
Citron-, Æble- og Ravsyre. Paafaldende er den ganske almindelige Forekomst af
Ravsyre, hvis Tilstedeværelse i Materiale, som det undersøgte, forholdsvis sjældent
er paavist. Grunden hertil kan mulig søges i Succinaternes Letoploselighed og den
regelmæssige samtidige Forekomst af Æblesyre. Vinsyre er ikke paavist i noget
Tilfælde. I omstaaende Tabel er der givet en Oversigt, der viser de enkelte Ana-
lysers Hovedresultater.

45 115

2) Syrerne forekommer dels i alkalibunden eller fri Tilstand, dels som Kalcium-
(og Magnium-) Salte.

3) Af den sammenlignende mikroskopiske og kemiske Undersøgelses Resultater
fremgaar det, at de indeholdte lettere opløselige Kalksalte i de friske Organer fore-
kommer saavel i opløst Tilstand, som udkrystalliseret. Forholdet maa være betinget
af Organets eller de kalksaltførende Cellers Vandindhold. Krystalstjernerne er i
mangfoldige Tilfælde sammensat af forskelligartet Kalksalt.

4) De mikrokemiske Reaktioner tillader ikke at karakterisere Kalksaltene paa
saadan Maade, at Sondringen mellem Saltene er mulig ad denne Vej. Eddikesyrens
Betydning som diagnostisk Hjælpemiddel er — som Wehmer allerede har frem-
hævet — overvurderet. Ved Behandling af Kalksaltcne med Kaliumhydroxydop-
løsning af passende Styrke (5 "/o), dekomponeres de under Dannelse af Syrernes
Kalisalte og Kalciumhydroxyd, som efter Indsugning af Luftens Kulsyre udskilles
som Karbonat, der har Form af — oftest — sexsidede Tavler, naar Reaktionen
anstilles under Dækglas, af sammenhobede Sfæriter (som Kolostrumdannelser), naar
den anstilles i Skaal. Denne Dekomposition er — uden at være tydet — for Kal-
ciumoxalatets Vedkommende først iagttaget af Sanio. Forholdet har bidraget til
væsentlige Uoverensstemmelser i Kalksaltenes mikrokemiske Karakteristik. Den af
Kohl givne Tydning, saavel som hans Karakteristik af Kalksalteues Reaktioner er
ganske urigtig. Ved Indlægning af Materiale, som indeholder lettere opløselige
Kalksalte, i Kloral, foregaar der en Dobbelt-Dekomposition , hvorefter der udskilles
Gipsnaale. Med Anvendelse af mikrokemiske Reaktioner kan der kun opnaas et
Skøn over Arten af foreliggende Kalksalt, man kan bedst benytte sig af Forholdet
over for Klorammoniumopløsning. Den exakte Adskillelse er kun mulig paa Grund-
lag af den kemiske Analyse.

5) De af en Række Forfattere fremsatte Angivelser, som gaar ud paa mikro-
skopisk at godtgøre Kalciumoxalatets Genoptagelse i Stofskiftet maa antages at skyldes
lagttagelsesfejl, hidrørende fra Forvexling af Kalciumoxalat med andre Kalksalte.
Kraus' Forsøg paa gennem kvantitative Bestemmelser af Kalciumoxalatet før og
efter Væxtperiodens Indtræden at bevise dets Genoptagelse i Stofskiftet er ufyldest-
gørende, idet der maa have foreligget Kalciumoxalat sammen med andre Stoffer,
som reducerer Kaliumpermanganat.

6) Om Muligheden af Kalciumoxalatets Oploselighed i den levende Celle fore-
ligger der hidtil intet Bevis. De Iagttagelser, som af forskellige Forfattere er frem-
sat til Støtte for denne Paasland, gaar ud fra fejlagtige Forudsætninger.

For den Understøttelse, som har været tilstaaet mig af Carlsberg Fondet til
Fremme af dette Arbejde, bringer jeg min ærbødige Tak.

116

Art af undersøgt
Materiale

Vand

Aske og i HCl

uopløselig
Rest af Asiie

Total CaO

CaO, som

havde været

bundet til

Oxalsyre

Ca 0, som
havde været

bundet til

andre kalkfæl-

dende Syrer

l'aaviste kalkfældende
Syrer

Folia Farfari

pCl.
7,13

pCt.

15,08
1,37

pCl.
3,01

pCt.

0,04

pCt.

2,97

Svovlsyre, Oxalsyre,
Citronsyre, Æblesyre,

Ravsyre.

Folia Menthae piperitae

8,95

15,40
5,73

3,08

Svovlsyre, Citronsyre,
Æblesyre, Ravsyre.

Folia Jaborandi

7,54

9,95

2,27

3,45

0,48

2,97

Svovlsyre, Oxalsyre,
Citronsyre, Æblesyre,
Ravsyre.

Folia Digitalis

10,90

8,34
0,39

1,13

Svovlsyre, Citronsyre,
Æblesyre, Ravsyre.

Folia Cratacgi, Juni-Blade

Folia Crataegi, Oktober-
Blade

8,27
8,38

5,50
0,24

10,47
0,48

1,95
5,04

0,59
1,54

1,36
3,50

Svovlsyre, Oxalsyre,
Citronsyre, Æblesyre,
Ravsyre.

Folia Theae

7,28

8,83
2,75

0,84

0,21

0,63

Svovlsyre, Oxalsyre,
Citronsyre, Æblesyre,
Ravsyre.

Folia Hyoscyami , første
Aars Grundblade

8,33

2(J,89
2,14

2,19

1,30

0,89

Svovlsyre, Oxalsyre,
Citron.syre, Æblesyre,
Ravsyre.

P'olia Hyoscyami, andet
Aars siddende Blade .

10,84

14,58
1,08

3,45

2,88

0,57

Svovlsyre, Oxalsyre,
Citronsyre, Æblesyre,
Ravsyre.

Folia Stramonii

6,15

14,15

1,22

4,03

3,00

1,03

Svovlsyre, Oxalsyre,
Citronsyre, Æblesyre,
Ravsyre.

Stigmata Croci

9,11

4,84
0,58

0,72

Svovlsyre, Citronsyre,
Æblesyre, Ravsyre.

Cortex Granati, Handels-
vare, Stammebark ....

8,34

17,70
1,63

9,07

5,67

3,40

Svovlsyre, Oxalsyre,
Citi-onsyre Æblesyre,
Ravsyre.

Cortex Granati, af unge,
indtil 4-aarige Grene. .

6,86

5,53

3,(KI

1,38

1,62

Svovlsyre, Oxalsyre,
Citronsyre, Æblesyre,
Ravsyre.

Cortex Fraiigulae, Han-
delsvare

8,07

4,65
0,10

3,17

1,27

1,90

Svovlsyre, Oxalsyre,
Citronsyre, Æblesyre,
Ravsyre.

Cortex Frangulae, af unge,
indtil 6-aarige Grene
uden Aarsskudet

7,20

3,64
0,10

1,65

0,57

1,08

Svovlsyre, Oxalsyre,
Citronsyre, Æblesyre,
Ravsyre.

Badix Althaeae

10,33

5,70
0,39

1,07

0,14

0,93

Svovlsyre, Oxalsyre,
Citi-onsyre, Æblesyre,
Ravsyre.

Tuber Jalapae

9,05

3,59
0,09

1,39

0,15

1,24

Svovlsyre, Oxalsyre,
Citronsyre, Æblesyre,
Ravsyre.

117

Art af uiulersogt
iMateriale

Aske og i HCl\
Vand uopløselig Total CaO
Rest af Aske

Ca O, som

havde været

bundet til

Oxalsyre

CaO, som
havde været

bundet til

andre kalkfæl-

dende Syrer

Paaviste kalkfældendc
Syrer

pCt.
Rhizoma Rhei, Kanton . . I 9,25

Rhizoma Rhei, Shansi
Tuber Dahliac

Cortex Quillajae

5,73
76,73

7,82

pCf.

3,67
0,10

14,92

0,09

1,52, 0,14 =
6,55, 0.61
i Tørstof

20,08
0,63

pCt. pCt.

0,73 0,39

10,45 8,90

0,41 = 0,11 =

1,75 0,43

i Tørstof I i Tørstof

15,68

11,80

pCt.
0,34

1,55

0,30 =

1,32
i Tørstof

Svovlsyre, Oxalsyre,
Citronsyre ("?), Æblesyre,
Ravsyre.

Svovlsyre, Oxalsyre,
Æblesyre, Ra\sj're.

Svovlsyre, Oxalsyre,
Æblesyre, Ravsyre.

Svovlsyre, Oxalsyre, Ci-
tronsyre (?), Æblesyre ('?),
Ravsyre.

LitteraturfortegneLse.

1. a. Scheele: Chemische Annalen. 1775, Pag. 19, og

b. Fliickigek: Zur Krinnerung an Scheele, Archiv der Pharmacie, 1886, Pag. 390.

2. Liebig: Agrikulturkerai eller Kemien anvendt paa Agerdyrkning og Fysiologi, Aalborg 1846. Pag. 173,

175 og 177. (Anonym Oversætter).

3. S.^Mo: Ueber die in der Rinde dikot. Holzgewächse vorkommenden krystall. Niederschläge und

deren anatom. Verbreitung, Monatsberichte der Berliner Akademie der Wissensch., 1857.

4. Holzner: Ueber die physiologische Bedeutung des Oxalsäuren Kalkes, Flora. 1857.

5. Sachs: Lehrbuch der Botanik, 1870, Pag. 594.

6. Emmehling: Beiträge zur Kenntnis der chemLschen Vorgänge in der Pflanze, Landwirt.sch. Versuchs-

stat., Bd. 30, 1884.

7. DeViues: Ueber die Bedeutung der Kalkablagerungen in den Pflanzen, Landw. .lahrbücher, 1881.

8. AÈ: Ueber die physiologische Bedeutung der in den Pllanzen vorkommenden Oxalsäuren Kalks,

Flora, 1869, Pag. 177.

9. A. Bkie«: Mittheilungen über das Saftsteigen in den B.Humen zur Frühjahrszeit, Archiv der Phar-

macie, 1868.

10. ScHiMi'Eii: Botanische Zeitung, 1888.

11. Kohl: Kalksalze und Kieselsäure in der Pflanze, 1889.

12. H.\nskn: Flora, 1890.

13. Wkh.mer: Das Verhalten des Oxalsäuren Kalkes in den Blättern von Syniphoricarpus, Alnus und

Crataegus, Bot. Zeit., 1889, Pag. 141.

14. Wehmer: Die Oxalatabscheidung im Verlauf der Sprossentwickelung von Symphoricarpus raccmosus.

Bot. Zeit, 1891.

15. G. Kraiîs: Ueber das Verhalten des Kalkoxalats beim Wachsen der Organe, Flora, 1897, Pag. 54.

16. Amar: Ann. sc. nat., Tome XL\, 1904, Pag. 195.

17. Berthelot & Anuhk: Sur la formation de l'acide oxalique dans la vegetation. Comptes rendus, T. 102.

18. Pfefeer: Untersuchungen über die Proteinkorper und die Bedeutung des Asparagins beim Keimen

der Samen, Pringsheims Jahrb. f. wissensch. Bot.. Bd. Vlll. 1872, Pag. 429.

118 48

19. Tsr.HiiiCH: Justs Rot. Jahresbericht, 1887, 15. Jahrg., 1. Abtli., Pag. 189, 2. Abth., Pag. .'iSn og I>ag. 558.

(Alle Steder væsentlig samme Ref.).

20. Czai'kk: Milchsaftsystem der Convolvulaeeen, Sitzungsberichte der Wiener Akademie 1894, Pag. 87.

21. .Jonsson: Lunds Universitets Aarsskrift, lid. 88, Afd. 2, 1902.

22. Bii.i-i: Gram: Om Proteinkornene hos diegivende Fro. Det kgl. danske Vidcnsk. Selsk. Skr., (i. Kække,

naturv. og mathem. Afd. IX, 1901, og Landw. Versuchsstat., 1902, Pag. 257.

23. Pfeffkk: Pflanzenphysiologie, 1897, Erster Band.

24. Jost: Vorlesungen über Pflanzenphj'siologie, 1904.

25. Czai'Kk: Biochemie der Pflanzen, 1905, Zweiter Band.

26. EuG. Wahminc, og W. Johannskn: Den ahiiindelige Botanik, 1900.

27. Bahfoku: De organiske Stoffers kvalitative Analyse, 1878, Pag. 111.

28. Jos. Moellek: Lehrbuch der Pharmacognosie, I9()ü.

29. Jos. Mof;li.eh: Leitf. z. mikroskopisch-pharmakogn. Ùbungen, 1901.

30. Pi.ANC.HON &Com,in: Les Drogues simples d'origine végétale, 1896.

31. Soleheder: Systematische Anatomie der Dikotyledonen, 1899.

32. AiiTHiii Meyeu: Wissenschaftliehe Drogenkundc, 1891.

33. TscHiiicH & Oesteblk: Anatomischer Atlas der Pharmacognosie und Nahrungsmittelkunde, 1893.

34. Gii.g: Lehrbuch der Pharmacognosie, 1905.

35. Fi.iXKicEit : Pharmacognosie des Ptlanzenreiches, 1891.

36. Real-Encyklopaedie der gesamten Pharmacie, Zweite Aufl.

37. Otto: Haandbog i Pharmakognosien, 1840.

38. Wiggers: Handbuch der Pharmacognosie, 1864.

39. Sum: Beiträge zur botan. und pharmakognostischen Kenntnis von Hyoscyanius niger, Bibliotheca

botan., 1901.

40. Mrri.ACHKis: Toxikologisch oder forensisch wichtige Pflanzen und vegetabilische Drogen, 1904.

41. VoGi. : Die wichtigsten vegetabilischen Nahrungs- und Genussmittel, 1899.

42. Mousgh: Grundriss einer Histochemie der pflanzlichen Genussmittel, 1891.

43. Ri!i). Müller: Ueber die vermeintlichen Oxalatkristalle im Safran, Zeitschr. des allgem. oesterreich.

Apotekervereins, 1903, Pag. 823.

44. Holmes: Pharmaceutical Journal, 1906, I, Pag. 315.

45. Otto Beug: Archiv der Pharmacie, 1859, Pag. 155.

46. OttoBekg: Bot. Zeit., 1861, Pag. 140.

47. Wiesneh: Die Rohstoffe des Pflanzenreiches, 1900.

48. Behrens: Anleitung zur mikrochemischen Analyse der wichtigsten organischen Verbindungen, 1895.

49. Benecke: Kleine Mitteilungen über 0.xalsäurebildung in Pflanzen, Bot. Zeit., 1907.

50. Schleiden: Méra. Ac. St. Petersb., VL Sér. T. IV. 1839.

FERSKVANDSAALENES (ANGUILLA)
UDBREDNING I VERDEN

I. DET ATLANTISKE OCEAN OG TILGRÆNSENDE

OMRAADER

EN BIO-GEOGRAFISK STUDIE

JOHS. SCHMIDT

MED 1 KORT

D. Kr.i.. Danskk ViDKNSK. Sfi.sk. Skriftf.h. 7 Række, NATtiRvmF;NSK. or, mathrm. Afd. VIII. 3

-►■<>)«5?J«'>—

KØBENHAVN

BIANCO I.IINOS liOGTHVKKIiUl
1!)09

I. INDLEDNING.

Ved de Undersøgelser, som jeg i Aaiene 1904—1905 udførte med det danske
Havundersøgelsesskib „Thor" i Atlanterhavet udfor Nord- og Vesteuropa for at fast-
slaa Udbredningen af den aim. Ferskvandsaals Larver og denne Fisks Yngleomraade,
kom jeg til det Resultat, at Aalen for at kunne forplante sig kræver visse ydre Be-
tingelser, saaledes navnlig store Dybder med høje Temperaturer af Vandet (se
Schmidt, 1906, p. 256). Som jeg i det citerede Arbejde har gjort Rede for, viste
denne Betragtning sig at stemme ganske for det undersøgte Havomraade, nemlig
den nordøstligste Del af Atlanterhavet og Nordhavet. Men dette Omraade udgør
kun en lille Del af det, hvor Ferskvandsaal (Slægten Anguilla) forekommer, og den
Tanke opstod da ogsaa strax hos mig, at det maatte være af stor Interesse at
prøve Gyldigheden af nævnte Betragtning ogsaa for andre Havomraader i Verden
og derved eventuelt vinde yderligere Bekræftelse herpaa.

Allerede ved de allerførste forberedende Undersøgelser blev det mig dog klart,
at det her drejede sig om et Arbejde, der krævede Aar for at kunne gennemføres,
for det første fordi /lng'Hi7/o-Slægtens Systematik befinder sig i den mest komplette
Uorden og Forvirring, og for det andet fordi vor Viden om Udbredningsforholdene
er meget mangelfuld, hvad der ogsaa gælder om de hydrografiske Forhold, som er af
Betydning i denne Sammenhæng. Da Publikationen af det ovenfor nævnte Arbejde
ikke kunde opsættes, idet det udgjorde en Del af de for de internationale Hav-
undersøgelser udførte Arbejder, maatte jeg altsaa opgive dér at medtage en Under-
søgelse af Ferskvandsaalens videre Udbredningsforhold. Men jeg begyndte allerede
dengang, for fire Aar siden, at samle paa Materiale i denne Retning og har fortsat
hermed i saa stor en Udstrækning, som Tiden har tilladt mig det. Det har herunder
været min Tanke, dels at søge at bringe Orden i Anguilla-Slæglens Systematik, dels
at komme til Forstaaelse af denne Slægts Udbredning over Jorden og de ydre Be-
tingelser, hvoraf Udbredningen er afhængig. Endnu er denne store Opgave langtfra
fuldført, men Bearbejdelsen er dog paa nogle Punkter saa vidt fremskreden, at jeg
anser det for rigtigst at forelægge Offentligheden den Del, som allerede er fuldendt.

Af rent praktiske Grunde vil jeg opsætte Offentliggørelsen af den systematiske
Undersøgelse til senere og hvad Artsadskillelsen angaar, her nøjes med at gøre Ad-
skillelse mellem 1) ensfarvede Anguilla-Arinr som den europæisk-nordafrikanske

16'

122 4

Anyuilla inilgaris Tukt. og den amerikanske Anguilla ihrijsypa Rak. (se om disse
Schmidt, 1906, p. 239) og 2) brogede eller marmorerede Anguilla-Arter som den
indiske Anguilla hengalensis Ham. Buch. Denne Adskillelse er fuldstændig tilstræk-
kelig l'or den her foreliggende Del af Arbejdet, som kun beskæftiger sig med Ud-
bredningsforholdene, særlig da der i det atlantiske Ocean kun forekommer de to
ensfarvede A. vulgaris og A. chrysypa, hvis indbyrdes Forhold jeg allerede har gjort
til Genstand for Omtale (1. c, p. 239 ff.).

I det indiske og pacifiske Omraade forekommer der i Modsætning til det
atlantiske baade ensfarvede og brogede Anguilla-Arter, og jeg har saaledes undersøgt
Hundreder af Exeniplarer fra Java, Japan og New Zealand; men om dette skal jeg
her indskrænke mig til at udtale, at Resultatet i høj Grad gaar ud paa en Reduktion
af Antallet af de opstillede Arter, hvoraf mange øjensynligt kun er baserede paa
Undersøgelsen af et enkelt Exemplar, og ved hvis Beskrivelse og Begrundelse man
har maattet gaa ganske ukritisk frem uden at vide noget om den systematiske
Værdi af de anvendte Karakterer.

Saalænge som disse Aaleformers Forhold lil de forholdsvis vel undersøgte at-
lantiske Aaleformer (A. vulgaris & chrysypa) ikke engang i systematisk Henseende
er klarlagt, vil det naturligvis være ørkesløst at diskutere deres Biologi udfra vort
Kendskab lil de sidstes. Hertil kommer ogsaa, at de hydrografiske Forhold i det pa-
cifiske Ocean kun er mangelfuldt kendte over store Strækninger. Disse Forhold
er Grunden, til at jeg her foreløbig kun beskæftiger mig med Atlanterhavet og de
tilgrænsende Farvande.

Hvad det for dette Arbejde for det første gjaldt om, var at oplyse, hvor i
Verden Ferskvandsaal findes, og, hvad der her er af ikke mindre Vigtighed, hvor
de ikke findes. I den Anledning maatte talrige Værker omhandlende de for-
skellige Egnes Fiskefauna raadsporges, hvad der har været meget tidrøvende for
mig, som ikke var fortrolig med oversøiske Landes iclithyologiske Litteratur, der
naturligvis findes spredt i Smaaafhandlinger og Lister i de mest forskellige Tids-
skrifter. Men endvidere klæber der den Mangel ved at maatte støtte sig til saa-
danne Afhandlinger, der ofte kun er baserede paa en Expeditions eller en Samlers
korte Besøg i vedkommende Egn, at man ikke faar mindste Underretning om Aalen
dér har været en af de almindeligste Fisk, eller om der tværtimod maaske kun en
enkelt Gang har været taget et enkelt Exemplar; om dens Faatallighed i Sam-
lingerne skyldes, at den virkelig dér er en sjælden Art eller blot, at man har
savnet brugelige Redskaber til Fangst af denne Fisk. Kort sagt, de sædvanlige
Samlingslister giver i Reglen slet ingen Forestilling om Mængden af de paa Stedet
forekommende Aal eller den Rolle, de dér spiller i Fiskefaunaen, og hvad værre
er, man kan af den tilsyneladende Mangel paa Aal efter Listerne ikke altid være
sikker paa, at dette svarer til Virkeligheden. Det er derfor kun i saadanne Til-
fælde, hvor man i flere forskellige Beretninger finder samme Resultal, al man tør
stole paa Mangelen af Aal , eller hvor Beretninger fra andre nærliggende Egne ud-
viser det samme. For i saa høj Grad, som det for Tiden er muligt at komme ud

5 123

over (ie herved foraarsagede Vanskeligheder, har jeg, som man ol'le vil se af del
følgende, ved brevlig Forespørgsel henvendt mig til saadanne Institutioner eller
Personer i de forskellige Egne af Jorden, hvorfra bedre Oplysning end Litteraturen
kunde give, var ønskelig, og, som man ogsaa vil se, har jeg ofte modtaget særdeles
oplysende og værdifulde Svar. Navnlig er der Grund til at fremhæve den af de
danske Konsuler rundt om i Verden ydede Understøttelse; dette vil fremgaa
med den største Tydelighed ved Læsningen af det følgende Afsnit. En Meddelelse
om der det eller det Sted foregaar et Fiskeri af Aal, er saaledes naturligvis af
største Betydning i denne Sammenhæng, i langt højere Grad end Forekomsten af
en eller anden efter Beskrivelsen mere eller mindre genkendelig, nyopstillel An-
(jiiilla-\ri i en Liste over paa Stedet, maaske tilfældigt indsamlede Fiskearter. At
man herved faar et ganske anderledes fast Holdepunkt for Bedømmelsen af, i hvilken
Mængde Aalen forekommer, er saaledes tydeligt nok; men selv en negativ Oplysning,
gaaende ud paa, at man ikke paa Stedet fisker Aal eller at Befolkningen ikke kender
den eller ikke har Navn paa den, kan saaledes være af stor Vigtighed, og Under-
retning herom har jeg derfor ogsaa stedse udbedt mig ved mine Forespørgsler. Det
er da ved en Kombination af de foreliggende videnskabelige Faunalister og de hos
Institutioner eller Personer bosiddende i vedkommende Egne indhentede Oplysninger,
at jeg er naaet til efterfølgende Oversigt over Ferskvandsaalens Udbredning, men
forøvrigt vil man i de enkelte Tilfælde altid kunne se, hvorfra jeg har mine
Oplysninger.

Efter at Raamaterialet til en Beskrivelse af Udbredningen var samlet, var Op-
gaven at søge at forstaa denne, det vil sige, ved Studiet af de ydre Forhold at
paavise, hvorfor Aal ene netop findes dér, men mangler dér. Denne
Side af Sagen , den interessanteste unæ'gteligt , vil man finde behandlet i det
tredje Afsnit.

Jeg skal inden jeg gaar over til al beskrive Aalenes Udbredningsforhold i de
forskellige Dele af det Omraade, hvormed vi her vil beskæftige os, bemærke, at
der ved denne Lejlighed væsentlig kun vil blive Tale om Forekomsten i de i Nær-
heden af Kysterne beliggende Egne, altsaa saadanne, til hvilke Aalene har
direkte Adgang fra Havet. Der foreligger ganske vist en meget interessant og lærerig
Opgave i at undersøge, hvor langt Aalene de forskellige Steder trænger ind i Landet
gennem de store i Havet udmundende Ferskvandssystemer, men jeg har, for ikke
at gøre Lidviklingen altfor lang, valgt at opsætte Behandlingen af denne Side af
Sagen til en senere Lejlighed. Jeg skal derfor her indskrænke mig til om dette
Forhold at bemærke, at inlet er bedre skikket til øjeblikkelig at illustrere, at
Ferskvandsaalene yngler i og slammer fra Havet end en Fremstilling paa el Verdens-
kaarl af, hvor langt de forekommer ind i det ferske Vand; man ser øjeblikkelig
heraf, hvorledes de aftager i Mængde, jo længere man fjærner sig fra Havel, indlil
de lilsidsl ganske horer op. El forlræiTeligt Exempel herpaa yder Nordamerika,
hvor Aale-Tætheden i de forskellige Stater er meget ulige stor, hvad jeg har forsøgt
i store Træk al fremstille paa Side 12S i nærværende Arbejde.

II. BESKRIVELSE AF FERSKVANDSAALENES UDBREDNING.

A. Vestlige Del af Omraadet.

Grønland,
Ifølge Faiîiucius (1780, p. 137) forekommer der, omend sjældent, Aal i de syd-
lige Strømme og Søer i Grønland. Denne Angivelse er for nylig blevet bekræftet,
idetZool. Museum i Kjøbenhavn har erhvervet et blankt Exemplar af den grønlandske
Aal. Om dette har cand. mag. Ad. Jensen, Zool. Museum, Kjøbenhavn, godhedsfuldt
meddelt mig følgende:

"Aalen nodscndtes i Efteraaret 1903 af Koloniliestyrcr Bruminerstedt. Don var samme
Aar stanf^cl med et Pilejern paa Stage af lîskimoen I'^lisa, i en Fjordarm ved 15oi)ladson Ij^dhi-
kasik, omtr. 4 danske Mil S. f. Nanortalik ved den sydligste Del af Grønlands Vestkyst. Den
maalte 603 mm.; Afstanden fra Snudespidsen til Rygfinnen 195 mm.; Afstanden mellem For-
enden af Analfinnen og do af Dorsallinnen 01 mm. Hovedets Længde 69 mm. Af Totallængden
udgor folgelig del første Maal 32,5 "d., det andet 10,1 "lo og herefter at domme tilhorer den alt-
saa ikke tien europæiske A. vitlf/aris Turt., men den amerikanske A. chrijsijpu Hat. i.lfr. Jokdan
og EvERMANN, 1896 a, p.349), hvad man iovrigt ogsaa efter disses Udbredning var berettiget til
at vente".

Dette interessante Fund bekræfter altsaa Fabricius' længe ubekræftede An-
givelse om at der lever enkelte Aal i den sydlige Del af Grønlands Vestkyst; men
at det kun drejer sig om ganske faa Exemplarer er ligesaa sikkert.

Ved den nordlige Del af Vestkysten og ved Østkysten findes den ikke (Ad.
Jensen, 1904), hvad man selvfølgelig heller ikke kunde vente sig i Betragtning af
de yderst ugunstige F'orhold, der hersker baade for Tilførselen af Yngel og for dens
Trivsel i disse arktiske, isbelagte Egne.

Det samme gælder utvivlsomt ogsaa for den nordligste Del af det ameri-
kanske Kontinent (Davis-Strædets vestlige Kyster), hvor Naturforholdene vel er om
muligt endnu ugunstigere for Aalens Forekomst; men nogen sikker Underretning
har jeg ikke, førend vi kommer saa langt sydpaa som til Labrador og New-
foundland.

7 125

Labrador; Newfoundland.

Paa Forespørgsel meddeler den danske Konsul i St. Johns', Newfoundland, Mr.
John Browning i Brev af 30. April 1908 følgende Underretning, der skyldes "the
Deputy Minister of the Department of Marine and Fisheries", W. B. Payn:

"Fresh water eels are found in mostly all our lakes and rivers, but not in great numbers.
They are also found on Labrador. There is no eel fishery of any importance in this country.
They are only cauj^ht now and again by trouters except on the West Coast where they arc
caught with traps".

Hertil føjer Mr. Browning følgende Bemærkninger:

"I have made several incjuiries but cannot obtain further information than is contained
in reply from Marine and Fisheries Department cxce])ting that the eels are not of a large
run; an occasional large one is caught".

Om Mængden af de i Newfoundland fangede Aal kan intet oplyses.

Ifølge "Annual Report of the Department of Marine and Fisheries, Newfound-
land for the year 1906", St. Johns' 1907, p. 33 udførtes der i Aaret 1906 fra Kolonien
53 Tønder Aal til en samlet Værdi af 465 Dollars.

Heraf kan vi altsaa drage den Slutning, at Aalen forekommer i Labrador og
at den i Newfoundland maa være en almindelig forekommende Fisk, eftersom den
paa Vestkysten er Genstand for et Fiskeri med Ruser, og eftersom der finder en,
omend beskeden, Export af den Sted.

Canada.
Gennem Danmarks Fiskeriagent i London, Capt. A. Solling har jeg modtaget
følgende Oplysninger fra Professor E. E. Princk, "Commissioner of Fisheries for
Canada" (i Brev af 20. Feb. 1906):

"Only one species is recognized in this country; it is called Anguilla chrgsypa, Raf.,
sometimes AnqiiUla rostrata. It occurs in most rivers from Prince Edward Island, Cape
lireton and Nova Scotia on the east to Lake Ontario and adjacent lakes on the west, an area
of over StXXXX) square miles. Some of the places where eels are obtained in very conside-
rable quantities are: the rivers of Prince Edward Island especially Cardigan, Morell and
Durk Rivers, also Cape Breton especially the Grand River and Mira River. In New Bruns-
wick the chief eel rivers are the St. John — and the Nepisiguit —, in Quebec the Three
Rivers and the Richelieu River. From all these nine rivers and twenty or thirty more rivers
frozen eels are shipped to New York and London.

The elvers ascend from the sea in July and August. Unfortunately there is no litera-
ture on the eels in Canada. They are not eaten generally here as we have such quantities
of salmon, trout, Corefioiius or whitefish and the liner qualities of seafish; hence eels are
despised bj' our people generally".

Gennem den danske Generalkonsul i Montreal, Mr. H.H.Wolff har jeg mod-
taget følgende interessante Oplysninger meddelte af "Office of the Minister of Marine
and Fisheries of Canada" og undertegnede L.P. Brodkur:

"I may say that eels arc more or less plentiful from the Maritime Provinces, even as
far west as Lake Ontario. The following is a statement of the quantities and value of eels
caught in the different Provinces in which Ihcv are taken, during 1901:

126 8

Lbs. Value (f )

Prince Edward Island 270,000 13,500

Nova Scotia 554,000 27,720

New Brunswick 049,200 32,460

Quebec 897,800 53,534

Ontario 45,500 2,730

In the Province of Queljcc, eels are cauj^lit all aloni^ the St. Lawrence Hiver from Lake
St. Francis to tlic Gulf, as well as in all the main tributaries, and notably in the Richelieu
River, from which eighty to ninety thousand pounds are annually taken.

In the southwestern portion of Quebec eels are caught towards the end of June, after
the high water has receded, when they start to descend to the (lulf, and their ca])ture con-
tinues throughout the summer and even late into the fall in the eastern ])ortion of the Province".

De nævnte Beretninger godtgør tilfulde, at meget store Mængder Aal fore-
kommer i Canadas atlantiske Provinser, og af de i de forskellige Provinser ind-
fangede Mængder Aal faar man et ganske bestemt Indtryk af, at Aalen i Mængde
aftager, naar man fra de i mest Berøring med Havet liggende Dele som Nova Scotia,
Prince Edward Island og New Brunswick, bevæger sig i vestlig Retning til Quebec
og Ontario.

(Smlgn. saaledes de i New Brunswick fangede c. 650,000 Ibs. med de i den
mangfoldige Gange større, men vestligere eller fjærnere fra Havet beliggende Provins
Quebec fangede c. 900,000 Ibs., eller hvad der er endnu mere iøjnefaldende, Prince
Edward Island (270,000 Ibs.) med den store Provins Ontario (45,000 lbs.), som ligger
længst fra Atlanterhavet af de af Dominion of Canada's Provinser, hvor Aal over-
hovedet forekommer).

Med Hensyn til Arten af de i Canada forekommende Aal kan jeg henvise til
mit tidligere Arbejde (Schmidt, 1906, p. 240), hvor henimod 100 store Aal fra
St. Lawrence Floden er nærmere undersøgt og fundet at afvige betydeligt fra den
europæiske Ferskvandsaal ved forskellige anatomiske og morfologiske Forhold, saa-
ledes navnlig Hvirveltallet, der hos de undersøgte Exemplarer overalt var lavere
end hos de europæiske Aal.

Forenede Stater.

Jordan & Evermann (1896, p. 269) omtaler Aalens (Anguilla chrysgpa Rat.)
Forekomst:

"Atlantic Coast of the U. S.; very abundant from Maine to Mexico, ascending all rivers
S. of Canada and E. of the Rockey Mountains and resident throughout the Mississipi Valley".

Foruden denne summariske Angivelse af Jordan og Evermann af Aalens Ud-
bredning vil man finde dens P'orekomst omtalt i adskillige af de lokale Fiske-
Faunaer, paa hvilke den nordamerikanske Litteratur er saa rig. Noget Indtryk af
den forskellige Hyppighed („Tæthed"), hvormed den forekommer i de forskellige
Dele af dette mægtige Omraade, faar man dog ikke gennem disse. Da det ikke
desto mindre i denne Sammenhæng var af stor Interesse at vide noget herom, har jeg
gennem Fiskeristatistikken søgt at tilvejebringe et brugeligt Grundlag i saa Henseende.

9 127

Materialet har jeg gennem den danske Generalkonsul i New York, Hr. .1. Clan,
modtaget fra "the Commissioner of Fisheries" i Washington, Mr. Geo. M. Bowkus,
i Form af en Fortegnelse over "yield of eels [Anguilla chrysypa) in the United
States", hvori Udbyttet for de enkelte Stater var angivet. Indholdet af denne
Fortegnelse er gengivet i Tabellen paa næste Side.

For den biologiske Betragtning, vi her vil gøre gældende, kan vi inddele de
Forenede Stater i tre Omraader, nemlig:

1) Øst-Omraadet eller de Stater, hvis Floder løber ud i Atlanterhavet nord
for Florida \ altsaa i Hovedsagen Omraadet øst for Alleghany Bjergene.

2) Central- eller Golf-O mraadet, d. v. s. det (vest for Florida beliggende)
Omraade, hvis Floder lober ud i den mexikanske Golf, og som mod Vest
begrænses af Montana — Wyoming — Colorado — New Mexico-.

3) Vest-O m raadet, d. v. s. del Omraade, der har Afløb til det pacifiske
Ocean, og som er beliggende vest for Montana — Wyoming — Colorado — New
Mexico-, altsaa i Hovedsagen det vest for Rocky Mountains etc. beliggende
Omraade.

Af denne Inddeling følger, at de Aal, der findes i Øst-Omraadet maa være
trængte op gennem Floder, der lober ud i det atlantiske Ocean ost for Florida,
medens Central-Omraadets Aalebesland maa komme fra den mexikanske Golf (vest
for Florida).

Inden jeg anfører Resultaterne af Sammenstillingen, skal jeg udtrykkelig frem-
hæve, at denne Fremgangsmaade selvfølgelig ikke kan give os et nøjagtigt Billede
af Aale-Tætheden i de forskellige Stater. Der er jo ingen Tvivl om, at de i de for-
skellige Stater forhaandenværende Aalebestande ikke overalt efterstræbes med samme
Iver eller med lige højt udviklet Fangst-Teknik, og tænkes kan det jo ogsaa, at de
Angivelser af Udbyltet, der ligger til Grund for Statistiken, ikke overall sker paa
samme Maade".

Der klæber saaledes store Mangler ved denne Metode. Naar jeg tiltrods for
disse alligevel mener, at der kan drages vigtige Slutninger af Sammenstillingen , er
det fordi Resultaterne er saa overordentlig tydelige og slaaende, al der ikke kan
være nogen Tvivl, om at de i store Træk giver et rigtigt Billede af de faktiske
Forhold.

' Naar Florida er valgt som Grænsen mellem de to første Omraader, saa at den ikke er regnet
med til nogen af dem, er det dels fordi denne Stat ved sin Form danner en natnrlig Adskillelse mellem
de to Have. (Atlanterhavet og den mexikanske Golfl hvorfra Aaleyngel kan stige o|) i de ferske Vande og
befolke disse, dels fordi Statistiken ikke omtaler noget Aalcliskeri i Klorida, skønt der ikke kan være
nogen Tvivl om, at ikke faa Aal maa findes her, eftersom der fiskes af denne Fisk i begge de om-
givende Stater.

- .Som adskillende mellem Central- og Vcst-0 mraadet regnes Montana — Wyoming— Colorado-
New Mexieo ikke med til noget af dem.

■' Saaledes er jeg tilbojelig til at tro, at der maa leve forholdsvis flere Aal i saadanne .Stater som
f. Kx. Louisiana og Mississipi, end det .synes at fremgaa af Statistiken.

1). K. I) Vidensk Sclsk. Ski-.. 7 li:i-kke, n;iturviilensk. <)|< m.-ilhcm. Afil. VIII. 3. 17

128

Tabel visende Udbyttet af Aalefiskerierne (Anguilla chrysypa)
i de Forenede Stater, i Pund (Ibs.)'.

I. Øst-Omraadet

II. Central-Omraadet

III. Vest-Omraadet

Maine

N. Hampshire

Vermont

Massachusetts
Rhode Island .
Connecticut . . .
New 'S'orli . . . .
Pennsylvania .

N. Jersey

Delaware

Maryland

Virginia

N. Carolina . . .
S. Carolina . . .

Georgia

Michigan '-....

Ibs.

255,150

800

4,100

541,945

290,195

178,197

807,157

G0,6.50

407,609

268,255

326,465

86,350

.507,111

5,300
1,211

lait... .3740,395
eller 97,90 "/o

Alabama

Mississipi

Louisiana

Texas

W. Virginia

Tennessee

Arkansas

Kentucky

Indian Territory

Oklahoma

Kansas

Missouri

Illinois

Indiana _. .

Ohio .....:.....

Wisconsin

Iowa

Minnesota

Nebraska

S. Dakota \
N. Dakota /

lait... 81,939

eller 2,10 "/o

Ibs.

1,045

3,930

1,670

484

100

8,787

5,240

150

600

6,555

20,813

1,550

618

2,487

21,978

5,632

300

ubetydeligt

Washington

Idaho

Oregon

California .
Nevada
Utah .
Arizona

lait...

olier O »/o

Ibs.

o
o
o

Af det samlede Udbytte af Staternes Aalefiskeri, nemlig 3822,434 Ibs. fiskedes
altsaa 3740,395 Ibs. i Østomraadet, 81,939 i Central-Omraadet, og slet intet i Vest-
Omraadet. Udtrykt i "/o falder saaledes 97,90"/» paa Øst-Omraadet og kun
2, 10 "/o paa Central-Omraadet, skønt dette sidste har et Areal, der er
mellem 3 og 4 Gange saa stort som Øst-Omraadets, og skønt det for en
stor Del bestaar af flodrigt Lavland, der er meget velegnet til Aalens Trivsel.

Der kan efter dette ingen Tvivl være om at der stiger overordentlig mange
flere Aal op fra Atlanterhavet end fra den mexikanske Golf, men paa den anden Side
er det overraskende at se, hvor højt op Aalene formaar at trænge i Floder som Mis-
sissipi og Bifloder. Det vil i denne Sammenhæng have sin Interesse at se lidt

' "The above figures are compiled from statistics of the New England States for 1905, Middle
Atlantic States for 19(1+, South Atlantic States for 19U2, Great Lakes and Mississipi River and tributaries
for 19(),'i, Gulf States for 1899, and the interior waters of Te.xas for 1900, and those of New York and
Vermont for 1902". (lîem.Trkning til den fra the Commissioner of Fisheiies, Washington modtagne Liste).

'-' Michigan regnes her med til Øst-Omraadet, da de her fangede Aal stammer fra de Store Soer,
som har Forbindelse med Atlanterhavet (se Tabellen paa næste Side og S. 130).

11 12'J

na'imere paa Udbyttet af Aalefiskerierne i saadanne fjærnt fra Havet beliggende
Staler. Jeg gengiver i den Anledning efter den amerikanske Statistik (U. S., 1902,
p. 067) Udbyttet af Aalefiskerierne i 1899 i Mississipi-Floden og Bifloder.

Tabel visende Udbyttet af Aalefiskerierne i Mississipi-Floden
og Bifloder i Aaret 1899 (U. S., 1902, p. 667).

staler Aal, lbs.

Alabama 8,040

Arkansas 3.702

Stater Aal, lbs.

Mississipi 3,93()

Missouri 7,811

Illinois 29,263 Nebraslia 300

Indiana 5,078 Ohio 618

Iowa 10,943 Soutli Dakota n

Kansas 1,070 Tennessee 14,180

Kentucky 3,900 | West Virginia 755

Louisiana 1,670 Wisconsin 1,745

Minnesota 900 j lait. . . 93,905

Vi ser heraf, at naar der i en Stat soin for Exempel Wisconsin fiskes Aal i
de ferske Vande, der staar i Forbindelse med Mississipi, som jo strømmer ud i
den mexikan.ske Golf, saa følger det deraf, at disse Aal maa være trængt ikke
mindre end over 1000 miles op i Landet, regnet fra Mississipis Munding.
Det er saaledes kolossale Vejlængder, Aalen kan tilbagelægge, og altsaa ogsaa efter
at den er kommen ind i det ferske Vand.

Der er nu det interessante Forhold, at i flere af de ovenanførte Stater, som
yder Bidrag til Aalefiskeriet i Mississipi-Omraadet, finder der, ifølge den amerikanske
Statistik, ogsaa et Fiskeri Sted af Aal, som maa have en anden Oprindelse end de,
der i samme Stat fiskedes i MLssissipi-Omraadel. Dette Fiskeri foregaar i de Store
Søer, hvor Aalene maa være komne ind gennem St. Lawrence-Floden fra det at-
lantiske Ocean. Del vil have sin Interesse efter den officielle Statistik forst at give
en Oversigt over Udbyttet af de Aalefiskerier, der finder Sted i de Store Søer fra
de Forenede Staters Side (U.S., 1905, p. 580):

Tabel visende Udbyttet af Aalefiskerierne i de Store Søer i 1899.

So Aal, lbs. So Aal, lbs.

Ontario 123,840 ! Micliigan 484

Erie 849 Superior.

Huron 861 \ lait. . . 125,590

Vi ser af denne Sammenstilling, at Udbyttet af Aalefiskeriet i Ontario Søen
langt overgaar de andre Søers Udbytte. Et Blik paa Landliorlet giver os imidlerlid
Forklaringen paa delte Forhold. Ontario Søen er nærmest Havet, hvorfra Aalene
kommer, og for al komme ind i de andre Søer lierfra maa de passere Niagara.
Den Vanskelighed, der herved møder den fremtrængende Aaleyngel, maa rimeligvis
være Hovedaarsagen til den paafaldende store Forskel mellem Ontarios og de øvrige
Søers Udbytte, idet de fleste Aal maa antages at blive standsede i Ontario
Søen uden al naa videre frem til de øvrige Søer.

17-

130

Fordelt efter Staterne tager de Store Søers Aalefiskeri i 1899 sig saaledes ud

(U.S., 1902).

Stater

Ontario-Søen

Erie-Søen

MichigaD-Søen

Huron-Søen

New-York

Ibs.

123,840

II
II

Ibs.
200

99
550

Ibs.

100

3«)

Ibs.

Ohio

„

Michigan

8G1

„

Indiana

„

lait. . .

123,840

849

484

861

Jeg skal herefter efter den officielle Statistik (U. S., 1902) anføre Udbyttet af
Aalefiskerieine i de Slater, der omgiver de Store Søer, saaledes at der for hver
Stats Vedkommende gøres Adskillelse mellem den Del af Udbyttet, der stammer
fra de Store Søer, og den Del, der har sin Oprindelse fra Mississipis Flodomraade.
Udbyttet er angivet i Ibs.

Tabel visende for de til de Store Søer grænseifde Stater Udbyttet af Aalefiskerierne
henholdsvis i Mississipi-Omraadet og i de Store Søer, i 1899.

New York

Michigan

Ohio Indiana

Illinois

Wisconsin

Minnesota

Mississipi-Omraadet

Store Søers Omraade. . . .

ti
124,040

1,511

618
99

5,078
84

29,263
300

1,745
»

900

Tabellen viser, at i Staterne Ohio, Indiana, Illinois, Wisconsin og Minnesota
stammer den største Del af de dér fiskede Aal fra det F^lodsystem, der har sil Udløb
i den mexikanske Golf, medens langt færre af dem er komne ind gennem St. Law-
rence Floden. Tager man nu i Betragtning, at der i den sidstnævnte Flods Om-
raade fiskes store Mængder Aal (baade i de Forenede Stater og i Canada), saavel
nedenfor Ontario Søen som i selve denne Sø, med andre Ord ikke langt fra de
anførte 5 Stater, saa synes der i det, at disse Slater ikke desto mindre fisker deres
fleste Aal i Mississipi-Omraadet, at ligge en ny Tilkendegivelse af, at del kun kan
være forholdsvis meget faa Aal, som fra Ontario Søen slipper ind i de andre
Store Søer.

131

Voll Hovedresultat med Hensyn til Aalelællieden i De Forenede Slater er da,
al medens denne Fisk mangler i det vestlige Omraade, findes den baade
i del østlige og det centrale Omraade. Her er den dog meget ulige fordelt,
idet der i det første, som er 3 — 4 Gange mindre end det sidste, ikke desto mindre
findes mange Gange flere Aal (i Øst-Omraadet 97,90^'/«, i Central-Omraadel
kun 2,10 "o af det samlede Udbytte af Fiskeriet).

Efter saa godt som det lod sig gøre for mig at have forsøgt at karakterisere
Aalens Udbredning og Hyppighed i de forskellige Dele af de Forenede Stater, skal
jeg, inden jeg forlader dette Rige, anføre nogle Hvirveltællinger, jeg har fore-
taget paa Aale-Yngel fra to forskellige Steder af Atlanterhavskysten. Materialet
skylder jeg velvillig Imødekommenhed af "United States National Museum",
Washington, D. C.

Smaa-Aal fra Wilmington, N. Carolina (talte af Johs. Schmidt).

Stii'ikt pigmenterede, meget tynde, rimeligvis ved den omtrentlige Minimalliengde i Stud. VI.

1) Længde 4.5'i^mm Vert. 43 + G5 = 108

2) — 48 - (krum) - 43 -f 64 =- 107

3) - c. 48 - - 42 + 67 = 109

4) — c. 52 - - 43+66 = 109

5) — c. 53 - - 43+66=109

Smaa-Aal fra Woods Hole, Mass., 1 Marts 1872 (talte af Johs. Schmidt).

Fra U. s. Nat. Mus. 13Ô92.

• é *

1) Længde c. 55 mm

•-•) - c. 57 -

o; tic I

i: = I
- = \

3)
4)
5)
6)

7)
8)

9)
1(1)
11)
1L-)
13)
Hl
15)
16)

lî)
18)
19)
20)

c. 53

c. 54
e.52
c. 52
c. 58
c. 58
c. .52
e. .57
c. 60
c. 59
c. 55
c. 55
?

c. 63
c. 57
c. 60
e.63
e. 70

Vert. 43 + 65 = 108

- 43 + 66=109

- 43-1 65=108

- 42 + 64 = 106

- 43 + 66=109

- 43 + 64 = 107

- 43 + 67 = 110

- 43 + 64 = 107

- 43 + 65 = 108

- 43 + 67 = 110

- 45 + 67 = 112

- 42 + 66 = 108

- 43 + 66 = 109

- 44 + 66 = 110

- 43 + 65 = 108

- 44 + 65 = 109

- 43 + 66 = 109

4^ I / Glasual med Hitc

. 43 + 65 = 108

. 43 -h 66 = 109

Antal 1 , . , ,, I
Hvirvler' '^"t"' t-"!''""

112
111
110

109
108
107
106
105

o o o o o o

132 14

Disse Aale-Unger, hvis Maal er aiiforl i "Conlrib. lo the Life-History of the
Eel" p. 244. Anm. (Maalene dér er bedre end de her anførte paa Xylol-Explr. tagne)
er lidet pigmenterede, i 5te Stadium ("Glasaal"), undtagen de paa 70 eller derover,
som er meget tykkere og et Aar ældre. Glasaalene her synes da at have en Længde
af omkring 5 — 6 Cm.

Mexico.

Den danske Konsul i Mexico, Herr H. L. Wiecheks, meddeler paa Forespørgsel
følgende i Brev af 2den Juni 1908:

"I nofile af de til Golfen tributære Floder fani^cs lejlighedsvis smaa (indtil fodlange) Aal;
man antager i Atm., at disse er unge Aal, som fra Havet vandrer op i Floderne og — eftcrat
de har opnaaet en vis Størrelse eller Udvikling — igen vandrer tilbage til Havet. Disse Dyr
findes stadig i større Mængde sammen i Floderne".

Meek (1904, p. 91) omtaler i sit Værk om Mexicos Fiske Forholdet og siger, at
den amerikanske Aal (A. chrysypa) er almindelig i Mexicos Floder nord for Tampico.

Regan (1905) giver en Liste over Fisk fra det sydlige Mexico; men Aalen
mangler i denne. Desuden meddeler Mr. C. Täte Regan fra British Museum mig i et
Brev af 13de April 1908:

"On the eonlinent of Ameriea Aiuiuilld does not appear to extend hirlhcr south llian
Tamaulipas, but in the islands it ranges southwards to St. Croix, St. Vincent, Dominiea, Gre-
nada ele. There are specimens from these islands in our collections ".

I sit bekendte Værk om "the apodal fish" omtaler Kaup (1850, p. 44) el Ex-
emplar af Anguilla fra Vera Cruz i Mexico, del sydligste Sted i delte Land, hvorfra
sikker Underretning om denne Slægts Forekomst haves.

Vort Hovedresultat bliver da, at Aalen forekommer i Mængde i den nordligere
Del af Mexico, men at den aftager i Mængde sydefter, saa at den synes at mangle
eller i hvert Fald at være sjælden i den sydligste Del. Dette stemmer tilsyne-
ladende godt med Forholdet i de tilgrænsende Lande: de Forenede Stater og de
centralamerikanske Republikker.

Central-amerikanske Smaastater.

GüNTHEU (1869, p. 377—494) giver i sin "Account of the Fishes of the States
of Central America etc." en Liste over de Arter, der kendes fra Cenlralauierika.
Grænsen for Omraadet angives ved følgende: N. Grænse: "Politicai boundary of
Guatemala", S. Grænse: "Isthmus of Darien". Det fremhæves, at Halvøen Yucatan
er saa at sige ukendt i ichthyologisk Henseende. Güntiier's Liste indeholder 303
Arter, men ingen Anguilla^

Paa Forespørgsel meddeler Mr. H. 15. Walcott, "Acting Colonial Secretary"
for Kolonien British Honduras mig i Brev dateret Belize 9de Juni 1908:

' Af I-'isli, (ler gaar undcr Navn "Aal ', anfoics liun Symhituiclius inaiinonitus Ira ilen atlaiitislic
og 6'. immaculaUis fra den paeilislvc Del af üuatcmala.

15 133

"In reply to your letter asking whether the common fresh water Eel occurs in the
waters of this Colony, I have the honour to inform you that I have made enquiries and find
that it does not appear to do so ".

I denne Sammenhæng skal jeg ogsaa gentage den bedste Kender af Central-
amerikas Fiske, C. Täte Regan's Udtalelse (jfr. forrige Side):

"On the Continent of America Aiu/iiilla does not appear to extend further south than
Tauuuilipas (Mexico)".

Alle de foreliggende Beretninger gaar da ud paa, Aalen mangler i de
centralamerikanske Vande. Da disse delvis er daarligt undersogle, kan man
vel ikke være vis paa, at ikke ganske enkelte Exemplarer vilde kunne antræfVes,
men det synes dog i hvert Fald sikkert, at den i det højeste kun kan være sjælden.

Heller ikke i Evermann & Goldsborough's (1902, p. 137 — 59) Lister paa 56 Arter
fra Centralamerika forekommer Anguilla, (men Sijmbranchiis mnnnorahis).

Vestindien.

Aal kendes fra mange Steder i det vestindiske Archipelag; det er i denne
Sammenhæng ikke nødvendigt at nævne dem alle, og jeg skal derfor indskrænke
mig til nogle Exempler.

Dausk Vesthidieu. Jeg har haft Lejlighed til at undersøge endel Montée taget
paa St. Croix i en lille Bæk ved "Envy" 14de Februar 1906 af Dr. Th. Mortensen,
der velvilligst har stillet dem til min Disposion. De er dels i det 6te Stadium
(Schmidt, 1906, p. 169), dels endnu videre fremme i Udvikling, og de maaler i Milli-
meter 49, 49, 51'/3, 57, 57, 73. Efter at have klaret dem i Xylol talte jeg Hvirvler
paa dem og fandt følgende Tal: 108, 107, 106, 109, 107, 111. De viste sig, efter
hvad jeg tidligere har oplyst, altsaa at tilhore den amerikanske Aal {Anguilki
chrijsijpa). løvrigt skal jeg for at give et Begreb om Mængden af her forekommende
Aal anføre følgende Udtalelser af Dr. Th. Mortensen, der dengang befandt sig paa
en Undersøgelsesrejse i Dansk Vestindien :

'iler er Aal, men meget faa; de tælles enkeltvis. Kun eet Sted, Salt River, St. Ci-oix,
synes der at være noget videre af Aal, og en derværende Fisker mente at kunne samle en
100 Slk. i Lobet af ca. 14 Dage".

PoEY (1876, p. 192) angiver Aalen at forekomme paa Cuba. Han henfører de
cubanske Aal til den gamle KAUP'ske Art A. (Maraena) cubana med den Motivering,
at Kaup's Exemplarer var fra Cuba. Foruden sin A. cubana har Poey en Anyuillu sp.;
men han oplyser intetsomhelst om den Mængde, hvori Aalen findes paa Cuba.

Heller ikke af Eigenmann siges noget om Hyppigheden af Aalen paa Cuba.
Han indskrænker sig til i sit Værk om Cubas Ferskvandsfiske (1904, p. 222) al an-
fore, al Anguilla chrgsypa er laget ved San Juan og ved Paso Real.

Om Forekomsten paa Portorico berettes af Evermann & Marsh (1900, p. 68)
blandt andet følgende :

"It {i.e. Anguilla chrysgpa) is caught in considcrahle numbers in l'ortorico in tlie small
bamboo Irans or "nasas" set in the small i-ivers".

134 16

Om Jamaica meddeler Mr. W. Fawcett, fhv. Direktør for den botaniske Have
i Kingston mig følgende i Brev af 2den November 1908:

"There are frcsli water eels in .laniaica, which Dr. Boulf.ngf.r of Die Brilisli Museum
(Natural History) assures nie are Angiiilld chrijsiipa. Eels are caught and eaten, but the lishins
is not of much importance. They are locally called eels".

Mr. C. Tate Regan fra Britisli Museum, London meddeler mig i Brev af 13de
April 1908 følgende:

"On the continent of America Anguilla does not npjjear to extend further soutli than
Taniaulipas, but in the islands it ranges southwards to St. Croix, St. Vincent, Dominica, (»re-
uada, etc. There are specimens from these islands in our collection, liut none from Trinidad
from which island we have a fine series of fresh-water fishes".

Om Forholdet paa den mellem Cuba og Florida beliggende 0 Key West be-
retter Jordan (1884, p. Ill) følgende:

"A single extremely young eel was taken in a seine in Enteromorjdia. The species
seems to be entirely unknown to the Key West Fishermen; nor did I find any one who had
ever heard the word eel".

Columbia.

Steindachner bar givet adskillige viglige Bidrag til Columbias Ferskvands-
fiske, saaledes (1878, p. 76) og (1880, p. 90). I sidstnævnte Arbejde findes en "Ueber-
sicht der bisher aus dem Stromgebiete des Magdalena-Stromes bekannten Fische",
og der opføres i denne 70 Arter (deriblandt Symbranchiis marmoratns) , men ingen
Anguilla eller anden Murænoid.

Venezuela.

I sine talrige "Beiträge zur Kenntniss der Flussfische Südamerikas", saaledes i
(1879, p. 151 — 71) omtaler Steindachner Ferskvandsfiske fra Orinoco-Floden. An-
guilla mangler overalt. Del samme gælder om Peters's Liste over venezuelanske
F"iske (1879, p. 469), hvor der opføres 43 Arter og mellem disse Sgmbranchus mar-
nioratus ("calabozo") og Gymnotus elcclricus ("temblador").

Britisk Guiana.

T. Sidney Hargreaves siger i sin Bog "The Fishes of British Guiana", p. 13,
Demerara 1904:

"There is a species of Conger Eel {Lcploccphahis congcr\ and one or two species of true
Eel to be met with: but these are never to t)e seen in the market as the créoles object lo eat
them, probably on account of their snakclike ni)pearance, althougli throughout tlie Wosl Indies
the connnon Eel is highly valued as a food lish".

Nærmere Underretning fra Forfatteren om de her omtalte Aal har jeg mod-
taget gennem el Brev fra "the Director of Science and Agriculture Department,
British Guiana", Mr. J. B. Harrison, dateret Georgetown 27. Marts 1908, idel Mr.
Hargreaves meddeler at :

"there are two s|)ecies of Aiiijiiilhi found in fresh water trenches. These are Aiujiiilhi
chrysijpa and Anifuilht sp".

17 135

Hollandsk Guiana.
PALAr,KY(1891, p. 216) refererer en mig ubekendt Afhandling af Keppler (Kappler?)
om Ferskvandsfiskene i Surinam, af hvilke han angiver ikke mindre end 70 Arter.
Blandt disse nævnes foruden Symbranchiis marinoratus og Gymnotus electriciis ogsaa
to Aal. Dr. J. Boeke i Leiden, der som bekendt har foretaget omfattende Under-
søgelser over Fiskeriforholdene paa den hollandsk-vestindiske 0 Curacao, meddeler
mig i Brev godhedsfuldt folgende:

"As far as I could gather when I was in Surinam, the fresh waler eels are rather
common llieri', hut I have not seen them myself (I stayed there only a few days)".

Fransk Guiana.
I sin "Contribution à l'étude de la faune iclithyologique de la Guyane française
et du contesté franco-brésilien" (1900, p. 123 — 1.36) opfører Vaillant en Liste paa
40 Arter Ferskvandslisk fra Guianas Floder og Søer. I denne Liste mangler An-
(juilhi ganske.

Brasilien.

E. A. GoELDi (1898, p. 443 — 488) giver i sin "Primeira contribuiçâo para o
conhecimento dos Peixes do valle do Amazonas e das Guyanas) en meget udførlig
Liste over de i Amazonfloden forekommende Fiske. Den indeholder 114 Arter,
deriblandt Symbranchiis marinoratus, men Anguilla mangler ganske.

Eigenmann (1907, p. 659 — 667) giver i sin Afhandling om Amazonflodens Fiske
en Liste paa ca. 46 Arter. Listen omhandler den Del af Amazonfloden, som ligger
mellem Para' og Manaos. Anguilla mangler ganske.

Paa Forespørgsel meddeler Chefen for den zoologiske Sektion af "Museu Goeldi"
i Para' i del nordlige Brasilien, Dr. E. Snethlage i Brev af 6te Maj 1908:

"l-'s ist mir ueher das Vorkommen von Ani/iiilla in ])rasilianischen Gewaesscrn, speciell
im Slaale Para', nie etwas zu Ohren geivommen. Wir hahen in unserer ziemlich um-
fangsrcichen Sanmilung wolil Meeraale [Muvaena); aher der Suesswasseraal scheint al)soliit
zu fehlen".

I sin paa omfattende danske Indsamlinger baserede Afhandling "Velhas Flodens
Fiske" giver Lutken (1875, p. 123 — 252) en Liste paa 55 Arter, hvorimellem Anguilla
ikke findes. Velhas Floden er en Biflod til Rio S. Francisco faldende i denne 2°
N. for I^agoa Santa i Staten Minas Geraes.

Paa Forespørgsel meddeler det danske Generalkonsulat i Rio Janeiro i Brev
af 16. .luni 1908 følgende:

"(Icneralkonsulatcl henvendte sig i Anledning af Deres Anmodning om Oplysning iivor-
vidl (len almindelige Ferskvandsaal {Angiiillu) forekommer i Brasilien, til Herr Professor
Macedo de Mendonca, Rio de Janeiro. Fra denne har man erholdt del Svar, at i de hrasi-
lianskc Vande fandtes ikke, saavidt hekendt, denne l'"isk".

Paa Grundlag af ovennævnte samslenimende Beretninger maa vi slutte, at
Aalen {Anguilla) ganske mangler i Brasilien.

1). K. ri. Viilciisk. Selsk. Skr., 7. ll;i-kke. iKilurv iilensk. i>(i llKilluMn. Alil. VIII. :i. 1,S

136 l'S

Argentina og Uruguay.

Günther giver i sin "Contribution lo the knowledge of the Fish-fauna of
the Rio de la Plata" (1880, p. 9 — 13) en Lisle paa 59 Arier, hvorimellem AiujiiiUa
mangler.

Berg giver i sin "Enumeracion sisteniatica y sinonimica de los peces de las
coslas argentina y uruguaya" (1895, p. 1 — 120) og i sin "Sobre peces de agua dulce
nuevos 6 poco conocidos de la Repiiblica Argentina (1895 a, p. 121 — 165) megel om-
fattende Lister, hvori Anguilla mangler.

Eigenmann & Kendall giver i deres "Noles on a Collection of Fishes from Ar-
gentina" (1907, p. 67 -108) en Lisle indeholdende 52 Arter. I denne Liste nævnes
en Conger {Leplocephalus) Art; men Anguilla mangler.

Paa P'orespørgsel meddeler den danske Generalkonsul i Buenos Aires, Dr.
E. H.LuND følgende i Brev af 15de Maj 1906:

"Jeg skal lierved tillade mig at meddele, at jeg ved personlig Henvendelse til Cliel'en
for det lierværende Fiskerivæsen, Dr. Lahili.e, liar bragt i Erfaring, at Fcrskvandsaalen
mangler her, og at den eneste Ferskvandsfisk, som kendes i .\rgentina, under Navnet "anguda"
(d. v. s. Aal paa spansk) er Sumbranchtis marmonilii.s".

Smitt har (1901) offentliggjort en Afhandling "Poissons d'eau douce de la
Patagonie etc."; den indeholder ikke Anguilla.

Paa Grundlag af ovennævnte Oplysninger er man utvivlsom! berettiget til at
slutte, at Aalen ganske mangler i Argentina.

Endelig skal jeg nævne et Arbejde af Carl H. Eigenmann & Rosa S. Eigenmann
(1892, p. 1 — 81) betitlet "A Catalogue of the Fresh-Water Fishes of South America".
Heri anføres ikke mindre end 1134 Arier .overalt fra Sydamerika, men Anguilla
mangler ganske.

Vi ser altsaa , at Anguilla mangler ved Størstedelen af Sydamerikas Østkyst.
Der er Grund til al freinha>ve, al den aaleformede Sfinibranchus niarnwratas fore-
kommer overall i de foreliggende Lister og at den hos ikke kyndige kan give An-
ledning til Forvexlinger.

Skønt jeg først ved en senere Lejlighed kommer til at omtale Forholdet ved
Stillehavet, skal jeg dog allerede i denne Sammenhæng omtale Amerikas paciliske
Kysler og begynder da med (^hile.

Chile.

Paa Forespørg-sel meddeler den danske Generalkonsul i Valparaiso Dr. Jean
H. Thierry følgende:

"Da jeg aldrig selv liar set citer liort om Fcrskvandsaal lierfra, lienvendtc jeg mig tit
Herr Carlos E. Poutkm, Direktor l'or det lierværende zoologiske Museum. Herr Pohtkii med-
delte mig, at der til Dato ikke var fundet Aal i I'loder og Socr i Chile".

Delfin (1898 1900) omtaler i sit "Calâlogo de los Peccs de Chile" heller ikke
Anguilla.

19 137

Peru.

Den danske Vice-Konsul i Callno, Herr Hans Hansen meddeler i Hiev af 12. April

1906 følgende:

"Den almindelige Ferskvandsaal forekommer ikke her i Peru. En anden Aaleart (Muracnn
Helena) forefindes her i Oceanet, men er dog .sjælden Gcn.stand for Fiskeri".

Abbott (1899) giver en Liste paa 101 Arter fra Peru, hvoriblandt ingen
Anguilla findes.

Peru og Ecuador.

Steindachneh (1879) giver i sine "Beiträge zur Kenntniss der P^Uissfische Süd-
amerikas" Lister over peruanske Ferskvandsfiske. Amjinlla mangler i disse.

Stabks (1906) giver en Liste paa 92 Arter af Ferskvandsfiske fra Peru og
Ecuador. Anguilla mangler i denne.

Steindachnkk (1880) anfører en Liste over 12 Arter af Fisk stammende fra
Floder og Brakvand omkring Guayaquil. Anguilla mangler i denne.

Her kan ogsaa nævnes en Liste paa 184 Arter af "shore-fishes" fra Revilla-
gigedo, Clipperton, Cocos & Galapagos Islands, forfattet af Snodguass & Helleh
(1905), hvor Anguilla ogsaa mangler.

Endelig skal jeg erindre om den Liste paa 1134 Arter af Ferskvandsfisk stam-
mende fra alle Steder i Sydamerika, som gives af Eigenmann & Eigknmann (1892),
og hvori Anguilla ganske mangler, hvad der udtrykkelig bemærkes af Forfatterne.

Centralamerika.
Med Hensyn til den paciliske Kyst af de centralamerikanske Smaastater hen-
vises til Günther (1869, p. 377 — 494). I den 303 Arter store Liste, .som her gives,
og som baade indeholder Fersk- og Saltvandsarter, mangler Anguilla ganske.

De Forenede Stater.

Jordan & Evkumann (1896) siger i deres "Fishes of North and Middle America",
p. 348 om Ferskvandsaalen "Nol found in the Pacific". Se ogsaa Tabellen S. 128.

Yderligere kan gengives følgende Oplysninger modtagne gennem den danske
Konsul i San Francisco, Herr H.H.Birkholm i Brev af 22de Marts 1906: Professor
David S. Jordan, Stanford Universitetet, Californien, meddeler:

"There arc no Iriic Eels on this coast. Tlicy arc plentiful all along the .\thinlic coa.st,
in Ihc waters of .Ja|)an, and through the South Sea cxcei)t ahout Hawai".

Canada.
Ifølge velvillig Meddelelse fra den danske Konsul i Vancouver, Hr. O. Marstband
mangler Ferskvandsaal her. I de tidligere citerede Angivelser (S. 125 — 26) fra officiel
canadisk Side siges det ogsaa, at del kun er i Canadas østlige Provinser, al Aalen
forekommer, og delle fremgaar ligeledes af den officielle Fiskeriberetnings statistiske
Angivelser (Dominion of Canada, 1908 — 09), saaledes som del kan ses af følgende
Uddrag.

18-

138

Udbyttet af Canadas Aalefiskerier i Aaret 1907.

Provins

Værdi

Mængde

Pr. Edward Island

New Brunswick

Nova Scotia .

Dollars

7,380
32,870
28,160
45,068

3,000

Ibs.

729,800
50,000

If
It
II

bris.

738
3,287
2,816

128

Ontario . ■

Sasliatchewan

Alberta .

British Columbia

Det Hovedresultat, soin vi nu er naael til for det amerikanske Kontinents
Vedkommende, kan i Korthed udtrykkes saaledes. Langs de atlantiske Kyster
træller vi først Aalen ved Labrador. I størst Mængde lindes den i Canada og de
Forenede Stater, men ogsaa i den nordlige Del af Mexico optræder den i Mængde,
hvad der delvis ogsaa gælder om Størstedelen af det vestindiske Archipelag. I
den sydlige Del af Mexico bliver den .sjældnere, og i Centralamerika synes den at
mangle, hvad der efter de foreliggende Oplysninger ogsaa er Tilfældet i Columbia
og Venezuela. Det eneste Sted paa Sydamerikas Fastland, hvorfra den med Sikker-
hed er kendt, er Guiana. Derimod mangler den ganske i Brasiliens og Argentinas
store Flodsyslemer, hvilket i ganske særlig Grad fortjener at fremhæves og be-
mærkes, og ligeledes mangler den fuldstændigt paa hele den store amerikanske
Stillehavskyst, baade i Sydamerika og i Nordamerika, hvad der ogsaa er meget
paafaldende. løvrigt henviser jeg til Kortet, der paa engang giver en fortræ^Telig
Oversigt over hvad vi veed.

Spitzbergen.

B. Atlantiske Øer.

Knifowitsch (1901 , p. 57) giver en Liste over Spitzbergens Fiske,
mangler heri.

Aalen

Island.

Som jeg tidligere har oplyst (Schmidt, 1906, p. 207), forekommer Aalen paa
Island, i størst Antal paa Syd- og Syd vestlandet, men ogsaa paa Vest- og den vest-
lige Del af Nordlandet, hvorimod den mangler paa Østlandet og den østlige Del af

21 139

Nordlandel. Jeg har talt Hvirvler paa et slørre Antal og fundet, al de alle uden
Undtagelse tilhørte den europæiske Anyuilla vulgaris.

Færøerne.
Aalen forekommer ret almindeligt paa de fleste Øer. I størst Mængde synes
den at findes paa den sydligste af Øerne, Syderø, hvor jeg selv har taget halv-
hlanke Aal i September Maaned i Vaagfjord mellem "Aalegræs" (Zoslera) i ret be-
tydeligt Antal. Aalefaring har jeg gennem Hr. Etatsraad O. Finsen's Velvilje mod-
taget i Mængde fra Thorshavn, taget i April Maaned. De af mig undersøgte færøske
Aal var typiske Anguilla unlgaris.

Azorerne.

Günther (Cat. 187Ü, p. 30) omtaler Exemplarer ai A. vulgaris fra Azorerne,
opbevarede i British Museum.

Gennem et Brev af 21de Sept. 19Ü8 fra Danmarks Vicekonsul i San Miguel,
Senhor V. de Sequeiha, har jeg modtaget følgende Underretning fra Professor, Lieute-
nant Coronet Chaves :

"I^'cr.skvantlsaalen er hyppig i Smaallodcr i)aa alle Øerne, men er ikke Genstand l'or et
Fiskeri af storre lietydning. Den kaldes lier "/ro:", ikke "eiro" som paa Madeira. Denne Aal
ansaa man tidligere for at være en for Azorerne, Madeira og Canarernc ejendommelig Art,
men den vides nu at være identisk med den i)aa del eurojneiske Kontinent levende Aiigiiilla".

Det forekom mig nu at være af betydelig Interesse at faa nærmere Rede paa
den systematiske Stilling af de paa Azorerne levende Ferskvandsaal. Man kunde
jo tænke sig, at der paa disse i Oceanet saa langt mod Vest fremskudte Øer fore-
kom Overgangsformer mellem Anguilla vulgaris og Anguilla chrysypa. Jeg henvendte
mig derfor til Hr. Konsul V. de Sequeira, der med den største Imødekommenhed
tog sig af Sagen og i Løbet af kort Tid sendte mig en Samling Smaa-Aal fra Azo-
rerne, forlræfl'eligt konserverede i Formol. Samlingen der var tilvejebragt i Maj
1909 ved Ponta Delgada, indeholdt 34 Exemplarer, der i Længde varierede mellem
56 og 141 mm. Med Undtagelse af 8 Stk. (Længde: 141, 117, 106, 103, 97, 77, 70,
6() mm.), der tilhørte ældre Aargange, bestod Samlingen af nylig forvandlet Aale-
faring eller "montée" (6te Stadium) varierende i Længde mellem 56 og 74 mm., saa-
ledes som del kan ses af hosstaaende Tabel.

Undersøgelsen af disse Smaa-Aal fra Azorerne bestod dels i H vir vel tælling,
dels i Bestemmelsen af Afstandene mellem Snudespids og henholdsvis Ryg-
og Gatfinnens forreste Punkt. Ved tidligere Undersøgelser (Schmiot, 1906, p. 240)
havde jeg fundet, at Hvirveltallet ydede en god Karakter til Adskillelse mellem den
europæiske og amerikanske Aal, medens af ydre Karakterer navnlig Afstanden
mellem Ryg- og Gatfinnens forreste Punkter udtrykt i Procent af Tolallængden i
Almindelighed ogsaa kunde anvendes til Adskillelse.

Resultatet af Undersøgelsen, som foretoges af cand. mag. A. Strubberg, kan
ses af følgende :

140

Ferskvandsaal fra Ponta Delgada, Maj 1909.

„Montée" (Ute Stadium).

LaMigde

Antal

i mm

Exemplarer

o
o

o o

o o o o

„Montée" ((jte Stadium).

Hvirvelantal.'

Antal

Hvirvler

Exemplarer

117

o o o

116

o o 0 o o o

115

oooooooo

114

c o

113

For samllige 34 undersogte Exemplarer (5() 141 mm.) fandles Afslanden mellem
Begyiulelsespunklerne af Ryg- og Gallinnerne udtrykt i "/d af Totallængdeii at variere
mellem 9,9 og 13,1. Gennemsnitlig var den 11,5 "/u, og kun for 2 af de undersøgte
Individer fandtes Værdier under 10 "/o, nemlig 9,9 og 9,9.

Som Hovedresultat af Undersøgelserne kan det siges, at samtlige Aal fra Azo-
rerne viste sig at være typiske Anyidlla vulgaris baadc i Henseende til Hvirveltal
og til de øvrige undersøgte Karakterer (Jfr. Scii.midt, 1906, p. 239 — 43).

Bermudas Øerne.
Af forskellige Grunde, som vil fremgaa af det folgende, maatte jeg nære Tvivl,
om at Mangelen af Anguilla i den eneste mig foreliggende Liste over Hermudas
Fiske af Günther (1880, Challenger) var i Overensstemmelse med de virkelige
Forhold. Jeg henvendte mig derfor til den danske Konsul i Si. Georges, Hermuda,
Mr. John S. Dakrell med Forespørgsel og modtog derefter i Brev af 9de Juli 1908
følgende Oplysninger fra Mr. Louis L. Mowhray ved "the Bermuda Biological
Institution and Aquarium":

"A/!(/Hi7/n chrijsiipa is taken in ahuosl all ol the Inland marshes, harbors, bays, and
inlets, and frequently among the reefs. In September 1906 I secured a larval form at St. George's.
It was llH-dwn ashore (luring a strong nortli-cast breeze".

' Naar der gjordes Adskillelse mellem Krop- og Halehvirvler, fandtes følgende Tal: 43 + 71;
44+70; 3(44+71); 2^44+73); 45 + (;8; 3 (45 -; 70) ; 4(45 + 71); 46-1-69; 2(46+70); 46 + 71;
47 + 68.

23 141

Madeira.

I sin Synopsis over Madeiras Fiske omtaler Lowe (1841, p. 191) Forekomsten
af Aalen paa denne 0. Han henfører den til Anguilla lalirostris Yarrel, der, som
bekendt, henhører til den europæiske Aal, Anguilla vulgaris. Det Navn, den gaar
under paa Madeira, er "Eiro", og den synes at forekomme i Mængde. Lowe siger:

"Eels are the only indigenous fresh-water fish of the island. They ahound
in the torrents, up to the height of about 5()0 feet above the sea. There are more species or
varieties; but I am not sufliciently acquainted with them at present to atteni])! their classi-
fication".

Denne Mængdeforekomst af Aal paa den langt ude i Oceanet beliggende 0,
hvor denne Fisk ifølge Lowe er den eneste "indigenous fresh-water fish", er af
meget betydelig Interesse for nærværende Undersøgelse, som det klart vil fremgaa
af den almindelige Del.

Canariske Øer.
Ifølge brevlig Meddelelse fra den danske Konsul i Sta Cruz de Tenerife, Sr.
FiLiBERTO Lallier (dateret 19de Februar 1908) er Aalen almindelig paa de canariske
Øer. Sr. Lallier udtaler følgende:

"Ferskvandsaalcn ("anguihi de agua dulce") forekommer paa Tenerife, Palma, Goiiicra
og Canaria; det er tvivlsomt, om den lindes paa (len Hicrro, og den forekommer ikke paa
Lanzarote og Fuerteventura. Det Sted, hvor der er mest af den, er Tenerife og sa-rligt i den
Del af "la Laguna" (kaldet saaledes, fordi der tidligere fandtes en Lagune her ved Siden af
Byen), som er nærmest ved Byen, samt i "Las Montanas", hvor den findes i Mængde i de
Vandpytter ("charcos"), som dannes i de Klofter ("barrancos'i, hvor Elvene lober. Bønderne
lægger saakaldet "leciie de cardon". Saften af Huplwrbiii canarieiisis, i Vandet for at bedove
dem og kunne fange (knii '.

I det pragtfulde Værk om Canarernes Naturhistorie, udgivet af Barker-Webb
& Berthelot (1836 44) omtaler Valenciennes p. 88 — 89 den canariske Aal, .som
han kalder Anguilla canariensis Val.; men som efter den Beskrivelse og Afbildning,
han giver af den, utvivlsomt ikke er andet end den almindelige Anguilla vulgaris.
Om dens Forekomst meddeler Valenciennes følgende:

"On trouve plus particulièrement ces Anguilles dans les mares d'eau laissées çà et là
])ar les ruisseaux qui serpentent au fond des barrancos ou ravins profonds de Ténerille.
Ces ruisseaux, au lem])s des pluies deviennent des torrents l'ornddahlcs, mais qui se dessî-clienl
quand les eaux manquent dans les bas-fonds. Ces .\nguillcs restent alors à sec, et on peut
les i)rendre en les piquant avec des dards. On en mange communément aux Canaries"-

Jeg bar fremhævet sidstnævnte Sætning, fordi den, i Forbindelse med den
danske Konsuls interessante Meddelelse om den ejendommelige Maade, bvorpaa de
canariske Bønder fanger Aalen, utvivlsomt viser, at der her maa findes meget af
denne Fisk.

Cap Verdiske Øer.
Den danske Vice-Konsul i San Vicente, Sbnr. Manoel Da Silva Pinto Ferro,
meddeler paa Forespørgsel folgende i Brev af 27. P"ebruar 1908:

142 24

"I Besvarelse af Deres Brev tillader jeg mig at meddele, at Ferskvandsaalen ikke findes
i Cabo Verde, hvor der ikke existerer Fcrskvandssocr. I Floderne i det nordlige Portugal
forekommer den i store Mængder".

Troschel (1866) anfører en Lisle paa 42 Arter, deriblandt Miiraena belena,
men ingen Anguilla.

Herefter synes Aalen altsaa al mangle paa de Gap Verdiske Øer.

St. Helena.

Den danske Konsul paa Si. Helena, Mr. H.W.Solomon, meddeler paa Fore-
spørgsel følgende i Brev af 22de Maj 1908:

"1 have the honour to acknowledge the receipt of your letter of the Slh ullimo asking
for certain information re fresh water Fels, and in reply have to inform you that there are
no fresh water hsli at all in this Colony'.

C. østlige Del af Omraadet.

{Nordasien, Vesteuropa, Middelhavet^ Vestafrika).

Den aim. Aal (Anguilla vulgaris) forekommer overalt ved de allantiske Kysler
af Europa. Delle er saa almindeligt bekendt, al jeg ikke behøver al nævne hvert
enkelt Land, men skal indskrænke mig til al henvise til den Beskrivelse af Aale-
yngelens Indvandring, som jeg tidligere har givel (Schmidt, 1906, p. 196 — 213). Til-
bage bliver al omtale Nordhavel, Ishavet og Middelhavet.

Nordhavet og Ishavet.

Aalen er almindelig i det .sydlige og vestlige Norge, men findes ogsaa i del
nordlige Norge, hvor den overskrider Polarkredsen og gaar længere mod Nord end
noget andetsteds i Verden. Om dens Udbredning i Norge giver Collett (1905, p. 39)
Besked i sin Bog om Norges Fiske. Han meddeler her, at den nord for Trond-
hjem utvivlsomt er mindre talrig end længere sydpaa, men al den dog er funden
f. Ex. ved Tromsø og Magerø, ja endog i Varangerfjord i Finmarken.

Knipowitsch (1898, p. 1—11) beretler om det Hvide Hav og Murniaiik.vsteiis
Fiske. Han inddeler Omraadet i 4 Arealer: I) Varanger Fjord og Murniankyslen
til Woslotschnaja-Liza, II) derfra til Kanin-Nos og til Indgangen af det Hvide Hav,
III) Østlige Halvdel af Murmanhavet og IV) Hvide Havet. — Kun for det vestligste
Areal (I) angives Anguilla og kun med Tvivl, medens den mangler i de 3 øvrige
længere mod Øst beliggende Arealer.

Der er altsaa ingen Tvivl om at Forholdet er det, at Aalen er meget sjælden
østen for Nordkap, omcnd der muligvis i de vestligste Dele af den russiske Ishavs-
kyst underliden kan træffes enkelte Exemplarer.

I Sibirien mangler Aalen ifølge Pali.as (Zoogeographia rosso-asiatica, vol. III,
p. 71, 1831).

25 143

„ Middelhavet.

Spanien.

Hvad angaar de spanske Atlanterhavskyster, da har jeg tidligere oplyst (Schmidt,

1906, p. 196 og 205) om den Opgang af Aaleyngel, som her finder Sted. (I Porlugal
findes der naturligvis ogsaa Aal, jfr. S. 142, og Brito Capello's Værk om Portugals
Fiske (Cat. Peix. Portug.).

Med Hensyn til Spaniens Middelhavskyst er det nok at henvise til det Aalc-
fiskcri, der finder Sted i den store Albi'ifera-Lagune i Nærheden af Valencia (Bellini,

1907, p. 1).

Paa de baleariske Øer findes Aalen ogsaa, skønt der ingen andre Fersk-
vandsfiske forekommer (ifølge Palacky, 1891, p. 175).

Italien.

At der i Italien findes store Aalefiskerier, er en aim. bekendt Sag. Størst Be-
tydning har de meget bekendte Fiskerier ved Comacchio ved Adriateiliavel syd for
Venedig. (Se f. Ex. Jacoby, 1880 og Bellini, 1907).

Balkanhalvøen.

Ifølge mundtlig Meddelelse fra Hans Majestæt Kong Georg af Grækenland
forekommer der Aal i Grækenland, men de er ikke Genstand for noget større
Fiskeri, da de ikke værdsættes videre meget af Befolkningen.

Bellini (1907, p. 1) meddeler, at der finder et Aalefiskeri Sted i Herzegovina
og i Burn Søen i det europæiske Tyrki.

Günther (Cat., 1870, p. 31) omtaler et voxent Exemplar af Anguilla vulgaris
fra Marmarahavet.

Derimod er man efterhaanden enig om den paafaldende Kendsgerning, at Aal
mangler i Sortehavsomraadet (i det caspiske Hav mangler den ogsaa, men
derved er der intet mærkeligt, eftersom dette er en indelukket Brakvandssø). An-
gaaende det Sorte Hav kan jeg ikke gøre bedre end at citere von Siebold (1863,
p. 345 — 48), der i sit fortræffelige Arbejde om Mellemeuropas Ferskvandsfiske har
underkastet dette Spørgsniaal en indgaaende Prøvelse. Han siger herom bi.a.:

"Die geographische Verbreitung des Aals in Mitteleuropa ist eine höchst eigenthiimliche.
Er wird in allen denjenigen Flüssen und stehenden Gewässern angetroffen, welche mit der
Ost- und Nordsee, mit dem atlantischen, mit dem Mittel- und adriatischen Meere zuzammen-
hängen, fehlt aber in denjenigen Seen und Flüssen, welche ihr Wasser dem schwarzen Meere
zusenden. Daher findet sich der Aal nirgends im Flussgebiete der Donau, und fehlt derselbe
auch im Dnjestr, Bug, Dnjepr und Don. I^ai.las ' machte bereits auf die Abwesenheit des Aals
in den dem kaspischen und schwarzen Meere zulliessenden Gewässern aufmerksam: auch Eich-
WALD- und NoRDMANN^ lasscu den Aal in ihren h'aunen des Caucasus und Pontus unerwähnt.
Hiermit stimmen auch die Forschungen des Czernav*, Tchihatchefp^ und Kessleiv" übcrcin
welche in keinem der südrussischen Flüsse Aale antrafen".

' Zoographia rosso-asiatica (voL III, edit. IcSlil, p. 71). - Fauna Caspio-Caucasia, 1841. ' Ob-

servations sur la Faune pontique, 1840. ^ Bull. Soc. Imp. Nat. Moscou Tom. 23, 18S0, p. (!27. ■> C. R.,
Tom. 42, 1856, p. 442. '■ BulL .Soc. Imp. Nat. Moscou, Tom. 29, IS.^i, p. 442.

n. K. n. Vidensk.Selsk. Skr., 7. R.-ckkc. n.itmviilcnsk. og mntlicni. Al'il. VIU. 3. ly

144 . 26

Derefter gaar v. Sif.bold over lil at gennemgaa de forskellige Angivelser om Fore-
komst af Aal i Donau og kommer til det Resultat, at de alle beroer paa Fejltagelser
eller Misforstaaelser. Dette er ogsaa ahn. anerkendt af sencie Forfattere; men i
senere Aar har man indplantet Aaleyngel i Mængde i Donau fra Italien og Frankrig,
og den synes at trives godt, selvom den naturligvis ikke kan forplante sig. Bade
(1902, p. 83) har fornylig omtalt Sagen og udtaler:

"Ursprünglicli im Gebiete des Kaspischen und Schwarzen Meeres felilcnd, ist der Aaj
in neuerer Zeit in die Donau, besonders innerhalb Deutschland durch iMnsctzunf? von Anl-
brut eingebürgert".

Se endvidere Side 162, hvor Aarsagerne til Mangelen af Aal i det Sorte Hav
omtales.

Asien.

Palæstina.
Ifølge Günther (Cat., 1870, p. 31) findes Aalen (Ang. vulgaris) i Palæstina (Bahr
el Kelh).

I Cilicien omtaler Palacky (1891, p. 183) Forekomsten af Aal.

Ægypten.
GÜNTHEU (Petherick, 1869) omtaler i "The Fishes of the Nile" Aalens Fore-
komst her ligesom ogsaa Anguilla vulgaris hos Günther (Cat., 1870, p. 31) angives at
forekomme i den nedre Nil. Hvor højt den trænger op i Nilen, véd jeg ikke; men
at den ikke er fundet i dens øverste Del, ses af de S. 149 omtalte Arbejder af
BouLENGEU. Der forekommer store Mængder Aal i Nilen, hvorfra Export endog
finder Sted til Tyskland og London (meddelt af Aalefirmaet Salomonsen & Co.
London).

Tunis.

ViNCiGUERRA (1884, p. 52) omtaler Aalens (A. vulgaris Turt.) Forekomst i Tunis
og siger, at den er:

". . . . frequentissima specialmenlc nel lago di Tunis! . . . ."

Algier.
Gervais (1853, p. 16 — 17) siger om Aalens Forekomst i Algier:
"On vend au marche de Bone et dans d'autres lieux de l'Algérie des Anguilles prises,
soit dans les eaux douces, soit dans les eaux saumâtres et littorales de ce pays".

Den forekommer i saa stort Antal i Algier, at Export af den finder Sted, saa-
ledes til London (meddelt af Firmaet Salomonsen & Co., London).

Den algierske Aal, hvoraf jeg har haft Lejlighed til at undersøge adskillige
Exemplarer, afviger ikke fra den aim. Anguilla vulgaris. Den er i sin Tid af Gui-
CHENOT opført som en særlig Art, Anguilla callensis Guich. , men allerede Gervais
gør i 1853 1. c. opmærksom paa, al der ikke foreligger nogen Grund til at opføre
den som en .særlig Art.

27 145

Boulen'(;f;r (1905, p. 50) anføiei- i sin store og meget vigtige Liste over Afriicas
Ferskvandsfiske l'or Nordafrika kun Anguilla inihjaris Turt.

Atlanterhavet (Vestafrika).
Marocco.

Den danske Vice-Konsul i Saffi, Mr. George P. Hunot, meddeler paa Fore-
spørgsel følgende i Brev af 14. Sept. 1908:

"The fresh water eel is found in the rivers and lakes, and also in tlie underground
aqueducts where it is sometimes caujiht. The natives do not give it great imjiortance al-
tliough it is uuich appreciated by them as food. They call it "noon".

Selv har jeg i Februar 1909 taget Glasaal i Havet tæt ved Gap Spartel fra
det danske Havundeisøgelsesskib "Thor".

Senegal og Gambia.

Steindachneb (1870, p. 580 — 82) giver en Liste over samtlige (50) Ferskvands-
fiske fra Senegal. Heri mangler Amjiiilla.

BouLENGEU (1900, p. 511 IT.) beretter om de store Samlinger fra Gambia
Floden, som er tilvejebragte af L S. Budgett. Der opføres 40 Arter, men ingen
AiKjuilla.

Prosector Alg. Brinkmann, Kgl. Landbohøjskole, København, der i Febr. og
Marts 1906 opholdt sig i Gambia, anstillede paa min Opfordring Undersøgelser
over Aalens Forekomst i Gambia Floden. Han meddeler følgende herom :

"I Gamljia liar jeg gentagne Gange paa Fisketorvet i 15alhurst samt overalt opad Floden
sogt Oplysninger, stadig med negativt Resultat!".

I den 336 Arter store Liste af Rochebrune over Senegambiens Fiske mangler
Anguilla.

Angaaende de Gap Verdiske Øer se S. 141 — 42.

Liberia.

Steindachneb (1894, p. 1—96) opforer en Liste paa 96 Arter; for denne Liste
ligger meget betydelige Undersøgelser af Herr Büttikokeb til Grund. Den inde-
holder ikke Anguilla.

HuBRECHT (1881, p. 66 — 71) beretter om en Samling Fiske fra St. Paul's Floden
i Liberia. Den indeholder ikke Anguilla.

Elfenbenskysten.
Sauvage (1882, p. 313 — 25) omtaler en Samling Fisk paa 13 Arter fra Terri-
toire d'Assinie (Assinee) samlede af Maurice Chaper. Anguilla mangler.

Guldkysten.

Günther (1867, p. 110 ff.) giver en mindre Liste, hvori Anguilla mangler, og
senere (Günther 1899, p. 716 If. samt Günther 1902, p. 330 lï.) en stor Liste over

l'j"

146 28

de af Mr. R. B. N. Walke« paa Guldkysten samlede Fisk. Ogsaa i de sidste
mangler Anguilla.

Nigeria.

Günther (1896, p. 261 ff.) omtaler de af Miss M. H. Kingsley i Old Calabar
samlede Fisk, hvorimellem Anguilla ikke findes.

BouLENGEu (I'.IUI a, p. 4 11.) og (1902, p. 824 IT.) omtaler de af Dr. W. J. Ansorge
i Niger Delta'et samlede Fisk. Der omtales ikke mindre end SO Arter, men ingen
Anguilla.

Camerun.

Peters (1876, p. 244) omtaler de af Prof. Dr. Reinhold Ruchholz mest i Vic-
toria Floden, men ogsaa i Camerun, samlede Fisk, ialt 79 Arter, hvorimellem An-
guilla mangler.

LÖNNBERG (1895, p. 179) omtaler de af Herr Y. Sjöstedt i Camerun samlede
Ferskvandsfisk: Ingen Anguilla.

Fransk Congo.

Sauvage (1880 — 81, p. 19) giver en stor Lisle over alle de Ferskvandsfisk, som
kendes paa Strækningen "depuis l'embouchure du Sénégal jusqu'à l'embouchure du
Congo". Anguilla mangler.

Günther (1896, p. 261 ff.) omtaler i sin Afhandling om de af Miss M. H. Kingsi,ey
i Ogowe Floden samlede Fisk, at der fra denne Flod kendes 51 Arter, derimellem
ikke Anguilla.

Congo.

I Boulenger's store Værk: "Les Poissons du Bassin du Congo" (1901) opføres og
beskrives 221 Arter Ferskvandsfisk, men mellem dem hverken Anguilla eller nogen
anden Murænoid. Da dette Værk er baseret paa meget betydelige Indsamlinger og
Beretninger om Fisk og Fiskeri i Congo, er der ingen Tvivl om, at Aalen virkelig
mangler her'.

Angola.

Boulenger nævner i sit anførte Værk om Congos Fiske ogsaa Arter fra Angola,
men ingen Anguilla. Heller ikke findes denne Slægt omtalt hos Günther (1873, p. 142 IT.).

' Naar E. Wilverth i sit Arbejde: "Les Poissons du Congo" (Soc. d'Études coloniales, Bruxelles,
18'J7) omtaler, at han paa en Rejse i 189() "entre le Congo et la rivière N'ghiri par la Moboka et le lac
Ibana" oplevede, at hans Folk "se mirent en quête de petites anguilles qui pullulaient dans tous les
marigots ....", saa anforer Boulenger 1. c, at disse "petites anguilles" rimeligvis var Silurider af
Slægten Ciarias.

Paa samme Maade opfatter jeg en Meddelelse af en ikke Fagmand om Forekomsten af Aal i Congo
Floden; thi indenfor Slægterne Clarias o. a findes der jo Arter, som er overordentlig langstrakte, næsten
aaleformede; saaledes anfører Bollenger, at Siluriden Channaltabex apiis, der er aaleformet, og som i
Borna kaldes "Doango" og i Nedre Congo "Sanga Monteké ', skal være meget god at spise.

29 147

Tysk Syd Vestafrika.

L. ScHULTZE (1906), der specielt har sluderet Fiskcriforholdeiie i Tysk Sydvest-
afrika, omtaler ikke Aalen. Paa Forespørgsel meddeler Dr. L. Schultze i Brev af
28. Feb. 1908 følgende:

"Den aim. Aa\ (Aniiiiilla) findes hverken ved Kysten, i Floderne eller Flodmundinjicrne
etc. i Syd Vestafrika. De indfodte fanger i Floderne kun Siliirider".

Sydafrika.

I Sydafrika træffer vi igen Ferskvandsaal af Slægten Anguilla. Dette fremgaar
bl. a. af den af Bouiænger, den bedste Kender af Afrikas Ferskvandsfisk, forfattede
kollektive Liste over alle de fra denne Verdensdel kendte Ferskvandsfisk, (Boulenger,
1905). Boulenger anfører her p. 50: Anyiiilla Delalandii Kaup fra Sydafrika og An-
guilla bengalensis Ham. Buch. fra Natal. Den sidste er en af de brogede Anguilla-
Arter.

Paa Forespørgsel har jeg gennem "the Agent General for the Cape of Good
Hope", London, modtaget følgende Underretning om Kapkoloniens Ferskvandsaal i
et Brev fra "the Acting Chief Clerk to Secretary for Agriculture", Mr. B. Mc. Millan,
dateret "Office of the Secretary for Agriculture", Capetown, 19de Juni 1906:

"In reply to your letter on the al)ove subject, I am directed to inform you that the
undermentioned eels are known to occur in South Africa, viz.: Oi)hichlInis serpens, Anguilla
delalandii, Anguilla labiala, Muraena flavomarginala. Two specimens of Leptocephalus are also
recorded from South African waters. Tliere is no local literature on the South African Eel".

Den fungerende Konsul for Danmark i Capetown, Mr. W. Thomas Olive, med-
deler i Brev af 8de Maj 1906:

"I have the honour to inform you that through the good office of the Acting I")irector
of tlie (2ape Town Museum I have obtained the following information from Dr. Gii.chkist, the
keeper of .Marine Invertebrates and Irishes: The Eels in South Africa at present known are
five in number; Anguilla delalandii, Anguilla labiata, Muraena nebulosa, Muraena flavomar-
ginala, Ophtchthys serpens. There are therefore only two true eels. There is here no trawling
for eels, and no eel industry".

Hr. Valdemar Johansen, fungerende Konsul for Danmark i Durban, Natal,
meddeler paa Forespørgsel i Brev af 15de Januar 1908 følgende:

"Having made enquiries in the matter, I now beg to inform you that the fresh water
eels are to be found abundantly in jiractically all rivers, estuaries and lakes of Natal.

As a matter of fact, I am told that only in the Mooi River, the eel is extinct owing to
the water containing minerals. The size of eels in streams and rivulets runs from 18" to 2'
in length, and in big rivers up to 5 and 6 feet. There are no Government restrictions as to
fishing of eels, they are, however, caught only rarely by the farmers and hardly ever sold
in the towns".

Med Hensyn til hvilken Aaleart de natalske Aal tilhører, da angiver Boulenger

i sin flere Gange citerede Liste over Afrikas Ferskvandsfisk p. 50, at A. bengalen^s;~Try^
Ham. Buch. forekommer i Natal. A^\^- '■ '.-'//N

148 30

Martens (1869 — 73) angiver i sin Oversigt over de øslafrilvanske Ferskvands-
fiske, at Anguilla macrocephnla Rapp. findes i Natal.

Til sidst er det mig en Glæde her at kunne anføre en meget interessant Rede-
gørelse for Udbredningen af Ferskvandsaalene i Sydafrika baseret paa personlige
Iagttagelser af den velkendte Autoritet i sydafrikansk Ichthyologi, Dr. Gilchrist,
Capetown. Dr. Gilchrist meddeler paa Forespørgsel følgende i et Brev af 29de
December 1908:

"The distribution of the fresli water ccl in Soiitli Africa is very peculiar and I have
been making enquiries about it for some time back. On a recent visit to Natal I found it
occurred in abundance and was caught by Indians as food. The natives (Kaffins) have a
prejudice against fish of all sorts and especially against eels and there is no regular industry.
Further south, towards and at Port Elizabeth they do not occur so abundantly. They are
found at the south coast in all the rivers as far west as the Hreede River where they are in
fair abundance. Cape Agulhas or its neighbourhood seems to be the point where they
disappear, and ijracticallj' none occur in the rivers west of this nor on the west coast
generally.

The eel however docs seem to occur in tliese rivers but only now and again have spec-
imens been found and then of exceptionally large size. Thus one was found in the
Leerbcck a small stream llowing into Table Bay. One or two have been found in the Orange
River. At Pretoria (the watershed between the Crocodile and Orange Rivers) one large spec-
imen has been found in a stream which ultimately joins the Orange River, while they are
abundant in the small streams not far off which join tlie Crocodile River flowing into the
Indian Ocean".

Jeg skal her tilføje en Beskrivelse af Aniens Forekomst i det indiske Ocean
i naturlig Tilslutning til Sydafrika, hvormed Omtalen af Atlanterhavet sluttede. Jeg
begynder med at omtale Østafrika.

Osfafrilm.
Portugisisk Østafrika.

Peters (1868), der noget efter Midten af forrige Aarhundrede foretog natur-
historiske Undersøgelsesrejser i Mocambique , omtaler p. 94 — 103 Ferskvands-
aalene, af hvilke han opfører ikke mindre end 4 Arter. Disse er: Anguilla lahiala
Peters, A. niacroptlialma Peters, A. mossanibica Peters og A. virescens Peters.
Den første findes ved Zambezi og Licuare Floderne; de indfødte ved Telte (Zam-
bezi) kalder den "muciinga"; i Boror hedder den "licovovo". A. mossanibica er
fundet i Molumbo Floden (15°S. Br.), A. macroplhalma i Zambezi Floden ved Byen
Telte (kaldes her ligesom A. labiatai "muciinga") og A. virescens i Licuare Floden
(Boror). A. lahiala er ogsaa funden i Pangani Floden (Günther & Pl.wfair, 1866,
p. 124—25).

31 149

Britisk og Tysk Østafrika.

Pfeffer (1892, p. 169) omtaler blandt de af Dr. F. Stuhlmann i 1888—1889
samlede Fiske Anguilla labiata Peteus fra en Dam ved Mhonda, Ungi'iu, og der
udtales om den, at den spises. Endvidere anføres Anguilla virescens Peteus som
taget i Zanzibar.

Günther (1894, p. 91) anfører i sin Beretning om de under Dr. J.W. Gregory's
Expedition til Mount Kcnj'a indsamlede Fiske A. bengalensis Gray fra Thika-thika,
Atbi, og Tana F^loderne.

BouLENGER (1902, p. 224) anfører i sin Omtale af de af Mr. S. L. Hinde i
Kenya Distriktet samlede Fiske A. bengalensis Gray, fra Matboiya Floden med den
Bemærkning, at A. labiata Peters ikke kan adskilles fra denne Art.

Zanzibar. — Pfeffer (1892, p. 169) anfører Anguilla virescens fra Zanzibar.

BouLENGER (1906 a, p. 557—566) og Pellerin (1905, p. 290—94) omtaler Fiske-
samlinger fra Budolf Søen i den centrale Del af Britisk Østafrika og Boui.enger
(1906, p. 433 — 445) fra Victoria Søen. Ingen Anguilla anføres fra disse Vandomraader,
som ikke har Afløb til Østkysten af Afrika. Det samme gælder om Boulenger's
(1902 a, p. 260 — 64) 39 Arter store Liste over Fisk samlede ved Gondokoro (øverste
Nil, N. for Albert N\'anza Søen).

Somaliland.

Vincigi'ERra (1895, p. 27) omtaler en Anguilla fra Juba (Giuba)-Omraadet, som
han mener maa henføres til A. labiata Peters.

Rødehavets Kyster.

Djibuti. Pellegrini (1904, p. 543— 45) omtaler de af M. Ch. Gravier ved
Djibuti og Obok samlede Fisk. Anguilla mangler mellem disse.

Eritrea. Fra denne Koloni foreligger fra italiensk Side ret talrige Samlinger.
Giglioli (1888, p. 67 — 73) giver en Fortegnelse over Fisk fra Assab og Scioa. Anguilla
mangler mellem disse.

Del Prato (1891) giver en Liste over de af den italienske Kaptajn V. Bottego
i Eritrea samlede Fiske; men ingen Anguilla findes i denne ligesom ikke heller i
Borsiera's (1904, p. 187—220) Bidrag til Eritrea's Fiskefauna.

Klunzinger (1870 — 71) giver en paa meget omfattende Undersøgelser baseret
Liste over det Bøde Havs Fiske. Anguilla mangler i denne, hvor flere andre Mu-
raenoider opfores.

Om de fleste af de her citerede Arbejder vedrørende det Bøde Havs Kystlande
gælder det, at de væsentlig beskæftiger sig med Fisk fra Salt- og Brakvand,
hvorfor man maa være varsom med Slutninger angaaende Mangelen af Ferskvands-
fisk paa Grundlag af de heri meddelte Oplysninger. Det bør forøvrigt ikke glemmes,
at Betingelserne for Ferskvandsaalens Trivsel kun er slette i disse yderst vandfattige
Egne ved det Bøde Havs Kysler.

150 32

Til Slutning skal jeg kun gengive Martens's (1869 — 73) og Boulkngf.r's (1905)
Lister over samtlige fra henholdsvis Østafrika og hele Afrika kendte Anguilla-Avier.

Mahtens (1869-73, p. 144) Østafrika. Boclengeu (1905, p. 50) Hele Afrika.

1) AiujniUii lalniita Pkters : Pangani , Zambezi, 1) Anguilla vulgaris Tvwr, 1807: N. Afrika.

Lit'iiare. o) — benga/e/isis Ham. Buch. 1822: 0. Afrika.

2) — Johunnæ Güntheu: Jolianna Øen. 3) _ uirescens Petkhs 18."V2: 0. Afrika.

3) — Mossambica Petems: Molumbo Floden 4) _ Delalandii Kaup 18ô(j: Madaffascar. S.

(15° S. Br.). Afrika.

4) — macropthalma Peterk: Zambezi. 5) _ a;7iWodon Günther 1866: Seyclicllerne.

5) — mrescens Peter.s; Licuare. g) _ mWefcro/i(/(ii Sauvage 1891 : Madagas-

6) — macrocepliala Rapp. : Natal. car.

7) — nia;;jiorafn QuoY & Gaimard: Réunion.

8) — amblodon Günther: Seychellerne.

Øer i det indiske Ocean.
Seychellerne.

Günther i Günther & Playfatr (1866, p. 124 — 125) beskriver en Aaleart, An-
guilla amblodon fra Ferskvand paa Seychellerne. Det er en marmoreret Form op-
naaende en betydelig Størrelse (Originalexemplaret var 2 Fod langt).

Comorerne.
Günther i Günther & Playfair (1866, p. 124 — 2,5) beskriver en Aaleart, An-
guilla Johanna' fra Øen Johanna. Det er en marmoreret Art.

Madagascar.

Sauvage (Grandidier, 1891, p. 498) omtaler de niadagassiske Aal paa følgende
Maade:

"Les Malgaches api)ellent les Anguilles "Amalonä". On distingue lAmalombandanä
(Anguille rayée), l'Amalondriatsa (Anguille noire), l'Amalonkorakâ, l'Anialontsorondranô, l'Ama-
lontserikâ. Les Malgaclies de l'Ouest (au Ménabé) leur donnent aussi le nom de "Henalava"
(litt, viande longue), "Lamarankenä", "Lonâ", "Sakamalonà" (les jeunes), "Voninanialona" (litt.
fleur d'Anguille ou le fretin) et les Hova celui de "Kirija"."

løvi'igt henfører Sauvage de niadagassiske Aal til to Arter: Anguilla Hilde-
brandti Sauv., som er funden i den nordvestlige Del af Madagascar og desuden "sur
le versant oriental de cette même île dans les hautes forêts", og Anguilla Delalandii
Kaup, om hvilken det meddeles, at den paa Østkysten bærer Navnet "Tona".

Réunion.
Martens (1869 — 73, p. 144) anfører Anguilla Marnwrata Quoy & Gaimar» som
forekommende paa Réunion.

Mauritius.
Peters (1876, p. 445) anfører Anguilla labiata Peters blandt de af Prof., Dr.
K. Möbius paa Maurilius samlede Fisk.

33 151

Axien.
Om der findes Aal i det sydlige Arabien, er mig ubekendt, ligesom overhovedet
ichthyologisk Litteratur omhandlende disse Egne.

Den persiske Bugt.
Ifølge Palacky (1891, p. 185) har den Chesney'ske Expedition fundet Aalen i
Tigris Floden.

Britisk Indien.
Day (1878, p. 659— 660) henfører de indiske Aal til 2 Arter, nemlig:

1. Anguilla bicolor, med følgende Synonymer:
M{iiraena) anguilla Russell, Fish. Vizag., 8, p. 22, t. 31.

A. bicolor Mc. Clelland, Calc. Journ. Nat. Hist., V, p. 178, t. 6, f. 1.

A. moa Bleeker, Java, p. 22: Knek, Novara, Fische, p. 369.

A. bicolor and mowa Bleeker, Muræn. , 16, 17; Kaup, 51, 53, fig. 44; Kner, Novara,

Fisclie, p. 368; Günther, Cat, VIII, 36.
A Malgumora, Celebensis , Bleekeri, Malabarica and Cantori, Kaup, Apod. F., Kner,

Novara, p. 367.
M Jiioo, malgumora and sidat, Sleeker, Atl. ichthyol., IV, p. 10, 11. "Jee-tah-dali",

Andamanese.

2. Anyiiilla bengalensis, med følgende Synonymer:

M. (tngiiilla &. maciilata, Ham. Buch., FIsIl Ganges, p. 22, 23; Dav, Fish. Mal., p. 244

(in part).
A bengalensis, Gray & Hardw., III. Ind. Soc. ; Günther, Cat. VIII, p. 27.
A Elphinstonei, Sykes, Transact. Zool. Soc. London, I(, 377, pi. 67; Jerdon, M. ,J. L. and

Sc, 184i), p. 346.
A. Maiiritaniana, Bennett, Proceed. Zool. Soc, 1831, p. 113; Günther, Cat., VIII, p. 25.
A. lahrosa. Richards., Voy. Erebus and Terror, Fishes, p. 113.
A brei'irostris, variegata, nebulosa and Arracana, Mc Clelland, Calc. Journ. Nat. Hist.,

V; Bleeker Beng., p. 153.
A. marmorata, Kaup, Apodal Fish., p. 43 (not Quov & Gaimard).

Endvidere siger Day I.e. p. 660:

"A. Maiiritaniana Bennett, A. lahrosa Richardson, M. maculala Bleeker, A. .foluinnœ
Günther, Mnraena marmorata Kner, are terms employed for an Eel which anpears to he a
variety of this fish in which tlie origin of the dorsal lin is only about '1-2 the length of the
head before the vent".

I sit andet Hovedværk om Indiens Fiske omtaler Day (1889, p. 86, 87) ligeledes
de indiske Ferskvandsaal, som han ogsaa her henfører til to Arter: den marmorerede
Anguilla bengalensis og den ensfarvede A. bicolor. Der sj'iies efter Day ikke at være
nogen karakteristisk Forskel i Udbredningen af de to Arter; thi om den første ud-
tales det, at den beboer "islands of the Indian Ocean, Continent of India and Burma"
samt Andamanerne, medens den sidste siges at bebo "Coasts of India to the An-
damans" etc.

Aalene synes ikke at spille nogen slor økonomisk Rolle, ialtfald ikke for Euro-
pæerne; Day siger herom:

"Being seldom eaten exce|)t by the lower classes, there is but little demand tor lliem".

n. K. I). Vidensk Selsk. Skr.. 7. R.-ekkc. nalurvidciisk. i]|i mallu'm. Afd. Vlll. 3. 20

152 34

Day specificerer ikke sin Omtale af, hvor i Britisk Indien Aalen forekommer,
men at den findes overalt i Kystegnene, fremgaar al" mange andre Forfatteres Ar-
bejder. Exemplarer omtales saaledes f. Ex. fra Bombay (Aikj. Cantori, Kaup, 1856,
p.52), fra Malabar-Kystcn (A. dussumierii , Günthkr, Cat., 1870, p. 37; A. mala-
barica, Kaup, 1856, p. 53), Nilgherries, Ceylon, Madras {A. bengaknsis,
Günther, Cat., 1870, p. 27); Almorah {A. mauritiana, Günther, Cat., 1870, p. 26);
Ganges {Murœna anc/iiilla, Ha.m. Buch, Fish. Gang. p. 22) osv. osv.

ViNCiGUERRA (1890, p. 358) angiver A. bicolor Mc. Ci.ell. fra Rangoon i Burma.
Han tilføjer, at det er sandsynligt, at A. sidat Bi.eeker og A. uirescens Peters ikke
er artsforskellige fra A. bicolor. Som ovenfor anført angiver Day, at baade A. bicolor
og A. bengalensis forekommer paa Andanianerne.

Ostindiske Archipelaq.

Jeg skal her ikke komme ind paa de talrige Arbejder, der omtaler Fore-
komsten af Ferskvandsaal i de to ostindiske Archipelag, da dette rettelig henhører
under Stillehavsomraadet, som først ved en senere Lejlighed vil blive behandlet,
og desuden fordi det vil være hensigtsmæssigt forinden at søge at udrede de i Ost-
indien forekommende Aals Systematik, hvortil jeg har fortrinlig Anledning efter fra
Hr. Mag. se. Hj. Jensen paa Java at have modtaget nogle meget store Samlinger af
udmærket konserverede Aal. Jeg skal derfor kun anføre to Arbejder her.

Weber (1894, p. 428) anfører Anguilla sidat Bi.eeker fra Manindjau (Sumatra)
og oplyser, at denne Fisk i Tempe hedder "Bale Masapi".

Bleeker (1864, p. 8) anfører følgende:

"I.es Ani^uilles de linde arcliipclagique pourraient remplir un rôle assez important
comme nourriture des populations indigènes tant par leur cliair exquise, que par leur nomljre
et par leurs dimensions, mais il ne paraît pas qu'on les mange partout, pas même à Java,
où en general elles sont peu recherchées, si ce n'est que par les Européens et les Chinois".

Vi vil da nøjes med at konstatere, at Ferskvandsaal (og baade marmorerede og
ensfarvede) forekommer i Mængde i det ostindiske Archipelag og hermed ved den
østlige Rand af det indiske Ocean, saavel som ved den vestlige.

m. OM DE AARSAGER. SOM BETINGER FERSKVANDS-
AALENES UDBREDNING.

Som Hovedresultat af vor Undersøgelse over Ferskvandsaalencs Udbredning
fandt vi altsaa, at de forekom ved Nordamerikas atlantiske Kyster og i Vestindien,
men manglede ved Sydamerikas Atlanterhavskyst (undtagen i Guiana) samt baade
ved Sydamerikas og Nordamerikas Stillehavskyster. De fandtes paa næsten alle
de atlantiske nord for Ækvator beliggende Øer, de manglede ved Ishavets Kyster
i Sibirien og det nordlige Rusland, men fandtes lige fra Nordcap i det nordligste
Norge og videre sydpaa ved alle det nordlige og vestlige Europas Kystlande. Frem-
deles fandtes de ved alle Middelhavets Kysler undtagen det Sorte Havs, ved det
nordvestligste Afrikas Kyst indtil de canariske Øer. Derimod manglede de omtrent
fra Senegal og sydefter paa Afrikas Vestkyst, baade paa Guineakysten, i Nigeria
Camerun, Congo, Angola og Tysk Sydvestafrika. Forst i Kapkolonien trælter vi
igen Ferskvandsaal, men derefter findes saadanne videre op langs hele Østkysten
af Afrika (foruden paa Øerne ud for denne Kyst) ialtfald saa langt mod Nord som
til Somaliland (om der findes Ferskvandsaal ved Kysterne af det røde Hav, kan
ikke oplyses med Sikkerhed). Endelig er de tilstede paa Asiens Sydkyst i det
mindste fra den persiske Bugt og videre østefter i Britisk Indien til den malayiske
Halvø samt i det malayiske Archipelag.

Af denne Oversigt fremgaar det, at Ferskvandsaalene har en meget vid Ud-
bredning. Tager vi saaledes Anguilla vulgaris og undersøger, hvor den fore-
kommer, vil vi se, at den er udbredt fra Island og Nordcap (Norge) i Nord lil
Middelhavet, Nordvestafrika, Azorerne, Madeira og de canariske Øer i Syd, medens
den amerikanske Ferskvandsaal (Anguilla chrysypa) forekommer lige fra Syd-Gron-
land og Labrador og sydefter til Vestindien og Guiana, altsaa baade i arktiske,
tempererede og rent tropiske Eigne. Dette er yderst ualmindeligt for en Ferskvands-
lisk og lige saa ualmindeligt er det, at vi genfinder baade den europæiske og
amerikanske Anguilla paa adskillige rent oceaniske Øer, den første saaledes paa
Madeira og Azorerne, den anden paa Bermudas Øerne, skønt Ferskvandsfisk ellers
mangler paa flere at de Øer, hvor Aalene forekommer. Men mest af alt er del
dog ejendommeligt at se (jfr. Udbredningskortet), hvorledes Aalen, der f. Ex. paa
den vestlige Side af Atlanterhavet gennemskrider baade den arktiske, tempererede

■>D'

154 36

og en stor Del af den tropiske Zone, standser i det nordlige Sydamerika, saa at
der i Størstedelen af Sydamerika ikke findes Aal, og noget lignende ser vi er Til-
fældet ved den østlige Side af Atlanterhavet, selv om den her ikke naaer fuldt saa
langt mod Syd som ved den vestlige. Vi skal nu i det følgende diskutere de for-
skellige mulige Aarsager til denne Aalenes ejendommelige Udbredning.

Inden denne Diskussion begyndes, skal jeg fremhæve to Forhold, som er af
Betydning. 1) For det første at Fersk vandsaalene yngler i Havet. At dette
er Tilfældet, tør vel nu tildags betragtes som endeligt fastslaaet (jfr. p. 165). Bevist
er det i hvert Fald for baade den europæiske Aal (A. vulgaris) og den ameri-
kanske (A. chrysypa), idet man af begge har fundet Larvestadierne {Leptocephalus)
ude i Oceanerne fjærnt fra Land (jfr. Schmidt, 1906, p. 194 — 95, og Eigknmann &
Kennedy, 1902, p. 84). For de andre Anguilla-Arter mangler Beviset endnu, men
der er vel neppe nogen rimelig Grund til, at ikke ogsaa de skulde yngle i
Havet. Forøvrigt vil vi her kun beskæftige os med den europæiske og ameri-
kanske Aal, der i alle Forhold er de, som er bedst kendte. 2) For del andet,
at Fiskene for at kunne udføre deres Forplantning ofte kræver ganske andre
V ilk aar end dem, hvorunder deres Opvæxt og øvrige vegeterende Liv foregaar.
Denne Sag har jeg ved flere tidligere Lejligheder nærmere udviklet (Schmidt,
1906, p. 234 IT., 1907, p. 11-^12, 1909 a, p. 11 — 12) og behøver derfor ikke at
komme ind paa den her. Men naar man som her søger at forstaa , hvorfor
f. Ex. en Fisk mangler i en eller anden Egn, vil man indsee, at Spørgsmaalet
derfor i Grunden opløser sig i to: om der paa det paagældende Sted ikke er Be-
tingelser tilstede for, at Forplantning kan foregaa, eller om Grunden er, at For-
holdene er saaledes, at de ikke er gunstige for Fisken i de andre Perioder af dens
Liv, saaledes f. Ex. under Opvæxten. Hvor vigtigt det er at skelne imellem disse
to Forhold, vil med stor Klarhed fremgaa af det følgende.

Naar en Fiske-Art, tilmed en Art, der lever i Ferskvand, kan have en saa
overordentlig vid Udbredning som baade den amerikanske og den europæiske Aal,
kan man ved at se paa Kortet ikke undlade at forundre sig over, at dens Ud-
bredning mod Syd netop standser der, hvor den gør, thi i ganske særlig høj Grad
har en Art som denne med dens Yngels enestaaende langvarige pelagiske Liv (jfr.
Schmidt, 1906, p. 262) Betingelser for i Løbet af Artens Historie at udvide sit Fore-
komstomraade. Naar, som vi ser, Forholdet er saaledes, ligger det nær at begynde
vore Betragtninger netop med at spørge, hvorfor ingen af dem har kunnet trænge
længere sydpaa, saa at de mangler baade i Sydamerikas og Vestafrikas store Flod-
systemer. Paa Forhaand kunde man tænke sig en eller (lere af følgende Aarsager:

1) Ugunstige Temperaturforhold.

2) Mangel paa tilgængeligt Ferskvand.

37 155

3) Mangel paa passende Næring eller Vandets Uskikkethed til Aalcnes Trivsel
af kemiske Aarsager.

4) Mangel paa Tilgang af Yngel.

Om de under 1) nævnte Forhold kan det strax siges, at Aarsagen til Aalenes
Mangel i Sydamerika og Vestafrika ikke kan være Mangel paa saadanne Vand-
temperaturer, som er nødvendige for deres Trivsel, thi baade i Sydamerika og
Vestafrika vil man genfinde de samme Temperaturforhold som dem, hvorunder de
trives fortræffeligt f. Ex. i Nordamerika og i Vestindien. Om 2) kan det strax siges,
at i Sydamerika og Vestafrika findes nogle af Jordens største og vigtigste Floder
(f. Ex. Amazon- og La Plata-, Gambia-, Niger- og Congo-Floderne), hvorved denne
Mulighed strax udelukkes". Heller ikke det under 3) nævnte Forhold har nogen
Sandsynlighed for sig, thi begge de nævnte Omraader er fulde af fiskerige Floder,
som derfor maa antages at indeholde Næring nok til, at Aalene kunde leve der,
hvis der ellers var Betingelser herfor. At det paa mange Steder i Verden er lykkedes
at indføre Ferskvandsfisk (f. Ex. Karper, Lax og Ørred), hvor saadanne tidligere
ganske manglede, saaledes i Nordamerika fra de atlantiske Stater til Stillehavs-
staterne og fra Europa til flere af Øerne i det atlantiske og pacifiske Ocean, synes
ogsaa at vise, at det ikke kan være Næringsmangel eller specielle kemiske For-
hold i disse Egnes ferske Vande, der gør, at Aalene mangler der. Jeg skal her
ogsaa minde om, at man i de Forenede Stater har forsøgt Transplantation af Fersk-
vandsaal fra Atlanterhavskj'sten til Stillehavskysten, hvor de jo mangler. Saa vidt
jeg har kunnet faa Underretning herom, trivedes Aalene særdeles godt, og det
samme gælder dem, der udsattes i Donau Floden, hvor Aal jo ogsaa mangler, hvad
der navnlig er af Interesse i denne Sammenhæng. (En anden Sag er det, at det
naturligvis i ingen af Tilfældene lykkedes at faa Aalene til at forplante sig. Vil
man indfore Aal saadanne Steder, hvor de ikke findes ved naturlig Tilgang, maa
man være klar over, at der kun kan blive Tale om en Opdrætning af de om-
plantede Exemplarer, ikke om en Propagering af disse, se mere herom S. 165 ft".).

Vi er nu naaede saa vidt i vor Udvikling, at vi maa acceptere det under 4)
nævnte Forhold, nemlig Mangel paa Tilgang af Yngel, som Forklaring paa
Mangelen af Aal i Sydamerika og Vestafrika. Herved føres vi naturligt over til al
spørge, hvorfor der er Mangel paa Tilgang af Yngel, og derved fremdeles til at
beskæftige os med Ynglepladserne og de ydre Faktorer, som bestemmer disse.
Herved er vi naaede til Sagens Kerne. I mit første Arbejde om Aalen (190(5) havde
jeg vist, at Aalene fra Landene ved den nordøstlige Del af Atlanterhavet yngler i
Havel vest for Europa fjærnt fra Kysterne, hvor Dybderne er mindst ca. 1000 Meter,

' Som en Furklariiig paa Mangelen af Ferskvandsaal ved Amerikas Stilleliavskyst har jeg set
fremsat Mangelen paa store Floder. Dette kan neppe være Grund nok dertil, dersom der ellers havde
været Aaleyngel nok i Havet udenfor; thi dersom det sidste var Tilfældet, skulde den nok vide at finde,
hvad der var af Ferskvand. Saaledes har vi jo liørt, at der vrimlede af Aal paa de næsten ferskvands-
løse Bermudas Øer (se S. 140), og i de vestindiske Øers en stor Del af Aaret udtorredc Smaabække
finder Aaleyngelen ogsaa med Lethed op.

15(i 38

men kun saadannc Steder, hvor Temperaturen i Dybet er høj, nemlig ca. 7° eller
derover i lüOO Meters Dybde, saa at f. Ex. hele Nordhavet vest for Norge bliver
udelukket som Yngleplads paa Grund af de lave Temperaturer, under V i 1000 M.
Dybde.

Det laa nu nær at prøve, hvorvidt de dengang fundne Forhold ogsaa havde
Gyldighed for de andre Egne af Jorden, hvor Anguilla vulgaris og den nærbeslægtede
A. chrysijpa forekommer, og jeg fik da ved velvillig Hjælp af Hydrograferne Cand.
mag. I. N. Nielsen og Mag. Scient. H. Hansen efter Challenger-, Valdivia- og andre
Dybhavsexpeditioners hydrografiske Resultater indtegnet Temperalurkurverne for
1000 M. Dybde paa et Verdenskort, saaledes som det ses af Kortet PI. I.'. Be-
tragter man disse for det atlantiske Ocean, forekommer det mig, at med eet bliver
Mangelen af Aal i Sydamerika og Vestafrika forstaaelig. Vandet er her i Dybet
for koldt til, at A al en s Forplantning kan finde Sted. Vi ser saaledes 6°
og 5° Isothermerne forløbe fra Vestindien østefter over mod Gap Verde, saa al
hele den store Del af Atlanterhavet Syd herfor har lavere Temperaturer i 1000 Meiers
Dybde. Ud for Størstedelen af Brasilien er Temperaturen endog kun mellem 3 og
4 Grader C., udfor Vestafrika lidt højere, for Størstedelen mellem 4 og 5 Grader,
men ingen af Stederne altsaa naaende den Højde, som jeg ved Undersøgelserne
med „Thor" i 1904—1906 udfor Nord- og Vesteuropa havde fundet maatte være
Minimumstemperaturen for Aaiens Forplantning, nemlig ca. 7 Grader i 1000 Meiers
Dybde.

Ogsaa ved Stillehavskysten af Amerika er, som vi ser af Kortet, Tempera-
lurerne i Dybet lave, idet de intetsteds naaer op til 7 " i 1000 Meters Dybde, og i
den største Del af Omraadel er de under 5 Grader. Derimod træller vi Øst for
Afrika i del indiske Ocean nogel højere Temperaturer ligesom ogsaa Syd for Asien.
Som det fremgaar af Kortet, genfinder vi ved disse Kyster Ferskvandsaal (jfr. ogsaa
S. 147 ff.) omend ikke de samme Arier som i Atlanterhavsomraadet.

Al Aalenes Udbredning sydefter ved Atlanterhavets Kyster er i meget god
Overensstemmelse med Temperaturerne i Dybet, ses let af Kortet, og vi er da her-
med komne saa vidt i vore Betragtninger, at vi kan udtale følgende uden nærmere
Forklaring tilsyneladende paradoxale Sætning: I Sydamerika og Vestafrika, der jo
indeholder nogle af Jordens hedeste Egne, er der ikke desmindre for koldt til,
at Aalen, denne Fisk som i visse Stadier af sit Liv endog kan trives nord for
Polarkredsen, kan existere, fordi den i en Periode af sil Liv, Forplantningstidcn,
forlanger højere Temperalurer, end der findes udfor disse Dele af Jorden paa saa
stoi-e Dybder af Havet, som den kræver for al kunne forplante sig.

Del er nu paa Tide at undersøge, hvorvidt den her fremsatte Forklaring paa
Aalenes Mangel i Sydamerika og Vestafrika ogsaa lader sig forene med disse Fiskes
faktiske Udbredning indenfor den øvrige Del af del atlantiske Omraade.

For den østlige Del af Atlanterhavsomraadet (Vesteuropa og Nordvestafrika,
Azorerne, Madeira og Canarerne) viser et Blik paa Kortet, al Forklaringen synes

' Det hos KiiÜMMEL (1907, p. 42'.!) givne Kort blev senere ogsaa benyttet.

39 157

at stemme godt nok; thi vi ser, at Aalen (Angiiilla vulgaris) netop findes overall
i de Egne, som er beliggende ved Havomraader, hvor Temperaturen i 1000 Meters
Dybde er fra ca. 7° og derover, d. v. s. de Temperaturer, hvorunder Forplant-
ningen ifølge mine Undersøgelser med "Thor" foregaar. Saaledes er der Grund
til at bemærke, at de aalerige oceaniske Øgrupjier Azorerne, Madeira og Canarerne
alle ligger i den Del af Atlanterhavet, hvor Temperaturerne i Dybet er højest,
nemlig over 8° i 1000 Meters Dybde. En lidt nærmere Betragtning af Kortet viser
os dog strax, at Forholdet ikke overalt er saa enkelt, at Aalene udelukkende er
indskrænkede til de Egne, udfor hvilke Havets Temperatur i 1000 Meters Dybde
er over ca. 7°. Dette træder saaledes med Tj'delighed frem ved det nordlige Europa
(f. Ex. ved Norge), og det viser, at ogsaa andre Momenter maa være medvirkende.
Med Hensyn til Nordeuropa har jeg allerede tidligere (Schmidt; 1906, p. 204 —
231) drøftet denne Sag og vist, hvorledes hele Vest- og Nordeuropa forsynes med
Aaleyngel fra de store Produktionscentrer, som ligger Vest for de britiske Øer og
Frankrig, samt hvorledes den Mængde Yngel, et Sted modtager, i første Linie af-
hænger af Stedets Afstand fra disse Ynglepladser og af, i hvilken Grad de herskende
Strømretninger begunstiger Yngelens passive og aktive Indvandring til Stedet. Vi
fik derved en Forklaring paa, hvorfor Aalen aftager saa stærkt i Mængde indefter
i Østersøen, og ligeledes paa, hvorfor den er saa almindelig i det sydlige og vestlige
Norge, men bliver sjældnere og sjældnere nordpaa i dette Land, indtil den tilsidst
helt hører op. Vi saa saaledes, at det var betydelige Distancer Aalen som Yngel
kunde tilbagelægge og derved udstrække sit Forekorastomraade til langt fra Yngle-
pladserne bortfjærnede Egne (jfr. Afstanden fra Havet V. for de britiske Øer til den
indre Østersø), omend der selvfølgelig ei' Grænser herfor, idet en Egn naturligvis
kan ligge saa fjærnt fra Ynglepladserne, at der ikke er nogen Mulighed for, at
Yngelen ved de passive og aktive Vandringer, den har i sin Magt at udføre, kan
naa saa vidt'. Vi saa da ogsaa, at Aalen manglede eller var yderst sjælden Øst
for Nordcap i det nordlige Norge, men alene det, at den kan naa saa langt som
hertil og til den indre Østersø, giver os netop en udmærket Forestilling om de
store Distancer, den kan tilbagelægge fra Ynglepladserne, et Faktum, det er af stor
Betydning at have konstateret, naar det drejer sig om at forstaa Forholdet i andre
af Jordens Omraader, specielt ved Amerikas Østkyst, saaledes som vi snart skal se.
Jeg skal derefter gaa over til at omtale Forholdet i den vestlige Del af At-
lanterliavsomraadet, hvor det jo ikke længer drejer sig om Anguilla vulgaris, men
om den nærbeslægtede Anguilla cbrysypa. Vi mødes her af den Vanskelighed, at

') 1 mit Arbejde over de nordatlantiske Gadoiders Ynglepladser (Schmidt, l'JO'J a, p. lôlij har jeg
udfarligt omtalt, at der foregaar en storstilet Drift af pelagiske Organismer fra Atlanterhavet nord om
de britiske Øer ind i Nordhavet og Nordsøen. Jeg vedfojer herfra en Figur (S. 158), som viser Omfanget
af denne Drift i Sommeren 1905, og hvoraf det tydeligt freragaar, at Aaleyngelens ostgaaende Vandring
i høj Grad maa begunstiges af denne Drifts Aarsag. Som et direkte Bevis for, at Driften har Betydning
for Aaleyngelens Transport, kan anføres, at ifolge velvillig Meddelelse fia Dr. Hei.i.am) Hansiîn i Bergen
fandtes i Oktober 1UU7 en delvis forvandlet Larve (i 3dje Stadium, jfr. Schmidt, 190Ü, p. 1G8) af den
aim. Aal i Skærgaarden ved Bergen.

158

vi har at gøre med en anden, omend nok saa nærstaaende Form, saa at det der-
for ikke er berettiget uden videre at gaa ud fra, at den i sine biologiske Forhold
er identisk med den europæiske Ferskvandsaal. Dog vil det følgende vise, at den
efter al Sandsynlighed ligner denne saa meget, at dens Udbredning maa finde en
lignende Forklaring.

Medens den europæiske Aals Ynglepladser er nogenlunde godt kendte ved
Fundet af mange Hundrede Larve-

2^ 20^ IS' LO" $° o' S" 1Û"

- laoD Meter

stadier over en meget stor Stræk-
ning (se Kortet ') har vi for den
amerikanske Aals Vedkommende
til Dato kun Fundet af tre Larver
at støtte os til, naar det gælder at
udfinde, hvor i Havet denne Arts
Ynglepladser er beliggende. Eigen-
mann & Kennedy (1902, p. 84) be-
retter om de to af disse. De blev
taget paa 38°47' 20" N. Br., 72° 37'
00" V.L. den 5. Nov. 1883 og paa
38° 25' N. Br., 72° 40' V. L. Den tredje,
som allerede har været nævnt i
dette Arbejde p. 140, fandtes iland-
dreven paa Bermudas Øerne i
September Maaned 1906. Disse 3
Fund er afsatte paa Kortet, hvor-
af man ser, at de netop forekommer
indenfor eller nær ved det Om-
raade, hvor Temperaturen i Dybet
(1000 Meter) er højest i hele
den vestlige Del af Atlanter-
havet^. At det netop er herfra,
at vi har Underretning om F^ore-
komsten af Anguilla chrysypa's
Larver og dermed til en vis Grad
om denne Arts Yngleplads, kan jeg ikke anse for tilfældigt, tværtimod maa jeg an-

1 Ved det Togt med "Thor" til Middelhavet og de tilgrænsende Dele af Atlanterhavet, jeg har fore-
taget i Vinteren 1908 — 09, fandt jeg Aalens Larver saa langt mod Syd i Atlanterhavet som til udfor Vest-
kysten af Marocco. De er saaledes nu paavist paa hele Strækningen fra Vest for Færoerne til Vest for Marocco.

- Jeg kan her indskyde den Hemærkning, at jeg efterat Iiave faaet Temperaturerne i 1000 Meters
Dybde aflagt paa Kortet og studeret deres Fordeling, folte mig overbevist om, at den amerikanske Aal
maatte forekomme paa Bermudas Øerne, der jo ligger nær ved Centret for de hojeste Temperaturer.
Derfor lod jeg mig ikke nøje med, at Ferskvandsaalen ikke forekom i den eneste mig tilgængelige Liste
over Bermudas Fiske, af Ginthkr (Challenger, 1880, p. 8—9), men søgte nærmere Underretning i denne
Sag, hvad der, som nævnt S. 140, resulterede i, at det blev oplyst, at Anguilla chriisgpa tiltrods for
Bermudas Øernes Mangel paa Ferskvand forekommer almindeligt overalt paa disse Øer.

Fig. 1.
Drift af Salper (Salpa fasifonnis) efter »Thor s Undersøgelser
De sliraverede Omraader angiver Udbredningon af Salperne :
Mai— Juli liKJf). I Mai laa Nord- og Ostgrænscn Vest fofi Skol
land, men i Juli var de flyttede langt mod Nord og Ost og ;
August endnu længere.

41 159

tage, at vi netop her, omkring ca. 35° N. Br. og ca. 70° V. L., befinder os nær Produk-
tionscentret for den amerikanske Aal, der da rimeligvis maa liave noget lignende
Fordringer til Temperatur og Saltholdighed som dens nære europæiske Slægtning.

Naar vi paa liortet studerer Udhredningen af den amerikanske Aal, ser vi,
at dens Forekomst i Vestindien med Guiana , Mexico og de Forenede Stater
ikke frembyder noget mærkeligt'. Mere paafaldende er Forekomsten i Canada,
Newfoundland og Labrador, thi, som Kortet viser, er Temperaturerne i Dybet
udfor de sidstnævnte Lande yderst lave, kun ca. 2° til 3° i 1000 Meters Dybde.
Med hvad vi lærte om den europæiske Aals overordentlig store Evne til at forelage
vidstslrakte Vandringer, baade som Yngel og som ældre, bliver denne Forekomst
dog mere forklarlig, særlig naar vi tager et Strømkort for os. Af et saadant, f. Ex.
Kort No. 2640 (3528) udgivet af det engelske Admiralitet under Titlen "Pacific,
Atlantic and Indian Oceans, Mean directions and velocities of their stream and drift
currents", vil man se, at der raaaske intetsteds i Verden er saadanne Betingelser
for en effektiv passiv Transport af pelagiske Organismer ved Hjælp af Havstrømmene
som netop udfor Kysten af de Forenede Stater og nordefter, d. v. s. fra det Omraade,
hvor den amerikanske Aal vides al yngle, til udfor Canada og Newfoundland. Saa-
ledes angiver Strømkortet lier maximale Hastigheder af ikke mindre end 40 — 80
miles pr. Døgn, medens Minimalhaslighedcrne angives til 10 — 15 miles. Hastigheder
som selvfølgelig i liøj Grad vil fremskynde Aaleyngelens Vandring nordefter og
muliggøre, at den kan naa længere i denne Retning, end det ellers vilde kunne
ske. løvrigt vil man ved at sammenligne Distancerne med dem, vi kender for den
europæiske Aals Vedkommende, se, at de gennemgaaende slet ikke er større (smlgn.
paa Ivortet Afstandene fra Findestederne for Larverne af A. chrijsijpa Øst for de
Forenede Slater til Canada , Newfoundland , Labrador, ja selv til det sydlige Grøn-
land, med Afstandene fra den europæiske Aals Ynglepladser V. for de britiske Øer
og Frankrig til det nordlige Norge og den indre Østersø).

Med denne Betragtning stemmer den store Aalerigdom i Canadas mesl maritime
I^rovinser, New Brunswick, Nova Scolia og Prince Edward Island, og i de Forenede
Staters østlige Dele, særdeles godt, som man vil se af Kortet. Men vi har ogsaa et

' Ved en Betragtning af Kortet vil man se, at i det caribiske Hav er Temperaturen i lOOO
Meters Dybde liun mellem 5° og 6°, og der foreligger heller ikke noget, som tyder paa, at der produceres
Aal i dette Hav. Tværtimod synes Mangelen eller i hvert Fald Sparsomheden af denne Fisk i Central-
amerika og de tilgrænsende Dele af Sydamerikas Noitlkyst (VenezueUi. Columbia) nærmest at tyde paa
det modsatte, medens den sikkert konstaterede Forekomst af Aal ved Nordgrænsen af det caribiske Hav
over hele den direkte af Atlanterhavet beskyllede Strækning fra Cuba ostefter over den vestindiske
Ørække til det dermed i Flugt liggende Guiana meget vel lader sig forklare som stammende fra Pro-
duktionsstederne i Atlanterhavet.

Med Hensyn til Sporgsniaalet om, hvorvidt Aalen yngler i den mexikanskc C. olf, hvor Tempera-
turen i KMKt Meters Dybde kun er mellem ca. 4'l..° og ti" (Khimmei-, 1907, p. 4.'>9i, da foreligger der jo
ingen direkte Iagttagelser i den Retning, saa vidt mig bekendt, og der er intet, som viser, at det maa
væ-re Tilfældet. I hvert F'ald kan det neppe dreje sig om nogen stor Produktion. Dette ser man af den
relative Sparsomhed af Aal i det centrale Omraado af de Forenede Stater (jfr. S. 128 , hvor der jo kun
toges ca. 2''(o af Staternes samlede Udbytte af Aal, og endvidere af at Aalen, ifølge det foreliggende,
ikke er nogen videre iiyppig Fisk i Mexico, hvor den sydefter endog siges ganske at forsvinde.

D. K. n. Viilensk. SclsU. Ski-., 7. liit-kUc, ii.nlurviclonsk ü(> ni:illii;ni Aid. VIII. 3. 21

160 , 42

andet Middel til at prøve Rigtigheden af den her fremsatte Anskuelse, at disse nord-
lige Landes Aalehestand rekruteres fra langt sydligere heliggende Dele af Havet. Vi
kan saaledes for Kysten af Nordamerika gøre en lignende Betragtning gældende, som
jeg tidligere har anvendt for Europa (Schmidt, 1906, p. 217 ff.), nemlig undersøge,
hvorvidt Tidspunktet for Aaleyngelens Opgang paa forskellige Steder i de Forenede
Stater, Canada osv. stemmer med den Antagelse, at hele Nordamerikas Aalehestand
stammer fra Ynglepladserne udfor de Forenede Slaters Østkyst. Paa en detailleret
Undersøgelse i denne Retning har jeg ikke ment at kunne indlade mig; dette
vilde have krævet langt mere Tid , end jeg har til Raadighed , og vil desuden
kunne gøres baade lettere og bedre af amerikanske Naturforskere, for hvem der
heri foreligger en smuk og sikkert meget taknemmelig Opgave. Jeg skal derfor
indskrænke mig til nogle faa Betragninger, som iøvrigt synes at vise, at den om-
talte Tankegang er rigtig. — De Oplysninger, der foreligger om Aarstidsfæno-
menerne for den amerikanske Aals Larvers og Glasaals Optræden, er langtfra saa
fuldstændige som for den europæiske Aals Vedkommende. Dog er de tilstrækkelige
til al vise, at disse Fænomener ikke er sammenfaldende med Hensyn til Aars-
tiden. Medens del 1ste Larvestadium af Anguilla uiilgaris fortrinsvis optræder om
Forsommeren, er det tilsvarende Stadium af Anguilla chrijsypa hidtil kun fundet
om Efteraaret, og paa samme Maade synes, saavidt de sparsomme Oplysninger
rækker, de efterfølgende Udviklingstrin (5te og 6te Stadium eller "Glasaal" og
"montée") af den amerikanske Aal at optræde ca. '/t— '/s Aar senere end de lil-
svarende Stadier af den europæiske Aal. Vi skal herefter betragte Tidspunktet
for Aaleyngelens Opgang paa nogle af de faa Steder af Østkysten af Nordamerika,
om hvilke jeg har kunnet skaffe mig Underretning.

Tidspunktet for Aaleyngelens Opgang.

Den Side 131 omtalte Aaleyngel, paa hvilken jeg talte Hvirvler, stammede fra
Woods Hole, Mass., som ligger ved den aabne Havkyst. Yngelen, som toges 1ste
Marts, er meget svagt pigmenteret ("Glasaal"). Derfor afgiver Tidspunktet for dens
Fangst et ganske nyttigt Kriterium for Bedømmelsen af den Aarstid, paa hvilken
Glasaalene ankommer til denne Del af de Forenede Staters Kyst, herefter allerede
i Slutningen af Vinteren og det tidlige Foraar.

Paa Forespørgsel meddeler Mr. Baiîton A. Bean fra "U. S. National Museum"
folgende:

"The young eels swarm in their migration ii|) our east coast rivers in March and April
(Susquehanna and Potomac); in southern rivers earlier".

Smith og Bean (1899, p. 183) udtaler:

"In spring the young ascend the river, large straggling schools being seen along the
rocky shores ahove Georgetown".

NoRNV (1885, p. 315) er mere nøjagtig med Hensyn til Tidspunktet. Han an-
fører følgende Iagttagelser fra Odessa, Del. fra Midten af April:

"At the same time the flats here at low water, just at the waters edge, when tlie sun
shone warm, showed myriads of young eels, not larger tlian a camliric needle".

43 161

Paa Forespørgsel meddeler Dr. Hrr.H M. Smith, fungerende "Commissioner of
Fisheries," Wasliington, følgende i Brev af 2üde April 1909:

"The elvers or "glass-eels" appear in streams on our Atlantic coast in s])rint,'. In Maine
they have been observed early in May".

Sawyer (1887, p. 218) siger:

"— — — — as early as May large numbers of the little eels can be seen ascending
the streams".

Den sidste Iagttagelse, som refererer sig til Millrift, Pike County, PA., omtrent
150 miles højere oppe ad Delaware Floden end det ovenfor omtalte Odessa, og som
saaledes svarer meget godt til den fra Odessa, kan ikke anvendes til Sammen-
ligning med Iagttagelserne fra de tidligere nævnte Steder, der er beliggende nær-
mere ved Kysterne.

Ovcnstaaende er tilstrækkeligt til at vise, at Aaleyngelens Opgang finder Sted
paa de Forenede Staters Østkyst omkring 40° N. Br. i det tidlige Foraar eller endog
i Slutningen af Vinteren. Efter Mr. Barton A. Bean's Angivelse foregaar Opgangen
tidligere i de længere mod Syd beliggende Floder.

Canada. Som nævnt Side 125 meddeler Professor E. E. Prince, "Commissioner
of Fisheries for Canada", i Brev følgende :

"The Elvers ascend from the Sea in July and August".

Af hvad her cr anført, fremgaar at ved Østkysten af Nordamerika synes Aale-
yngelens Opgang i det ferske Vand at ske tidligere paa Aaret længere sydpaa, d. v. s.
i den Del af de Forenede Stater, som ligger udfor de Steder, hvor Aalen gennem
Fund af Larver vides at yngle, end længere nordpaa, f. Ex. i Canada. Forholdet er saa-
ledes tilsyneladende ganske parallelt med det, jeg tidligere har omtalt for Europas
Vedkommende: jo fjærnere fra Ynglepladserne, desto senere Opgang af Yngelen.
Men endnu har vi langtfra saa fuldstændige Oplysninger fra Amerika som fra
Europa, og vi maa derfor haabe, at denne interessante Sag maa blive taget op til
nærmere Undersøgelse af amerikanske Naturforskere. Saameget ved vi dog allerede,
al Tiden for Opgangen strækker sig lige fra det tidlige Foraar til Eftersommeren
(jfr. Marts i Massachussets og August i Canada), altsaa ligesom ved lùuopa over
et Tidsrum af adskillige Maaneder, men tilsyneladende senere paa Aaret end i
Europa i Overensstemmelse med, at Larvestadierne optræder senere end Hoved-
massen af den europæiske Aals Larver.

Jeg maa i denne Sammenhæng ogsaa henvise til, hvad der tidligere i dette
Skrift (jfr. S. 128) er udviklet om Aale-Tætheden i de Forenede Stater paa Grund-
lag af den officielle Fiskeristatistik. Vi saa heraf, at af det samlede Udbytte af
Aalefiskerierne, som androg 3822,434 Ibs, toges de 3740,395 Ibs (eller 97,90 "/") i det
østlige Omraade N. for Florida. Men vi kan føre denne Betragtning endnu videre.
Vi vil saaledes betragte Strækningen mellem Cape Hatteras og Cape Cod, imellem
hvilke Punkter Afstanden kun er godt 450 miles. Ikke desto mindre viser det sig
nu, at af de 3822,434 Ibs, som udgjorde det samlede Udbytte af Aalefiskeriel i de

•il*

102 44

Forenede Stater, inaa over 3 Millioner ll)s stamme fra Aal, der er stegne op i ferskt
Vand paa den korte Strækning mellem Cape Halteras og Cape Cod ', der, som det
vil ses af Kortet, er beliggende lidt nordligere end det Omraade, livor det varmeste
Vand i Dybet findes.

Vi ser altsaa, at alle de foreliggende Data, som er istand til at belyse Spørgs-
maalet om den amerikanske Aals Ynglepladser, viser hen til, at Prodnktionscentrerne
paa denne Side af Atlanterhavet, hvorfra selv de nordligste Egne som Canada, New-
foundland, Labrador, ja endog det sydlige Grønland forsynes med Yngel, er be-
liggende udfor de østlige Dele af de Forenede Stater, d. v. s. i den Del af det vestlige
Atlanterhav, hvor Temperaturerne er højest i Dybet. Den amerikanske Aal synes
derfor i sine biologiske Forhold at ligne den europæiske meget, thi ogsaa dennes
Ynglepladser var jo indskrænkede til de forholdsvis smaa Dele af det østlige At-
lanterhav med høje Temperaturer i Dybet (i det højeste vel fra Færøerne til syd for
Canarerne, men ialtfald til udfor Marokko, det sydligste Punkt, hvor jeg har fundet
Larverne; se Kortet).

Efter nu at have set, at Aarsagen til Mangelen af Ferskvandsaal ved stoi-e
Dele af Atlanterhavels Kyster maatte søges i altfor lav Temperatur (og Salt-
holdighed-) i de Dybder, hvor Aalen forplanter sig, vil der tilsidsl være Anledning
til at undersøge, om denne P'orklaring har Gyldighed overalt indenfor det atlantiske
Omraade. Delte sker lettest ved en Betraglning af Udbredningskortet. Man ser
heraf, at Forklaringen overalt synes at slaa lil baade for selve del atlantiske Ocean
og for de Indhave, der staar i Forbindelse med delle. Kun een Undtagelse er der,
nemlig det Sorte Hav, ved hvis Kyster Aal jo mangler tiltrods for den høje
Temperatur, der findes i Dybet, nemlig 9°.

Forholdene i det Sorte Hav har derfor Krav paa en lidt nærmere Betragtning
her. Jeg skal da efter Krummel (1907, p. 30Ü) anføre nogle af Arsen Lebedint-
ZEFF oflentliggjorte Maalinger, der er anstillede i det Sorte Hav i Aarene 1891 —
92 om Sommeren.

Disse Tal giver os strax Forklaringen paa, hvorfor Aalen mangler i det Sorte
Hav og de hermed i Forbindelse slaaende Floder. I Dybet, hvor Temperaturen
vel er høj nok lil at tillade Aalens Forplantning, indeholder Vandel den all højere
organisk Liv udelukkende Svovlbrinte, og rent bortset herfra er Saltholdigheden
utvivlsomt ogsaa altfor lav, nemlig kun ca. 22 "/oo, medens vi i Atlanterhavet fandt,
at den i det mindste maatte overstige 35,20 "/on.

' Dette ser man simpeltlieu ved at addere Udbyttet af Aalefiskeriet i de Stater eller Dele af
Stater, hvis Floder løber ud i Atlanterhavet indenfor den nævnte Strækning.

-' I.av Temperatur og lav Saltholdighed folges stedse ad i Oceanernes dybe Vandlag ligesom hoj
Temperatur og hoj Saltholdighed. .\f denne Grund er det i og for sig umuligt at afgore, om det er
den lave Værdi af den ene eller den anden af disse Faktorer eller raaaske af begge, der umuliggør
Aalens Forplantning.

163

Det Sorte Hav.

Dybde
(Meter)

Temperatur

Saltholdighed

"/oo

Svüvlbriiite (H,.S)

24°0

18.1

21°5

18.5

12°8

18.3

8°9

1S.5

8°0

20.6

183

8°8

21.6

0.38

36G

8°9

22.1

1.88

1161

9°0

22.5

4.44

2120

9°0

22.5

6.00

Det er allsaa klart, at Aalen ikke kan yngle i selve det Sorte Hav, og ser man
hen til den overordentlig snævre Passage, der fører ind til dette Hav, er det ogsaa
tydeligt, at det kun vil kunne lykkes faa Aaleunger at naa herind fra Middelhavet
og videre til de store Floder, der udmunder i det Sorte Hav. Ad kunstig Vej har man
fra Italien og Frankrig indfort Aaleyngel til Donau-Floden, hvor Aalen har trivedes
godt, uden at den dog naturligvis har forplantet sig. (Jfr. S. 143 ff. og S. 165 If.).

IV. AFSLUTTENDE BEMÆRKNINGER.

Skønt der endnu mangler meget i, at de vigtigste biologisl^e Forliold hos det
atlantiske Omraades Aal er opklarede, vil man dog efter Læsningen al' I'oranstaaende
Sider have faaet det Indtryk, at der allerede foreligger Momenter hertil. Man vil
have set, at Ferskvandsaalenes Udbredning i Amerika , Europa og Afrika finder en
naturlig Forklaring ved den Antagelse, at det er Temperaturerne og Saltholdig-
hederne i Havets Dyb i Forbindelse med flere andre sekundære Faktorer (Hav-
strømmenes Retning og Styrke, Afstanden fra Ynglepladserne etc.), der bestemmer
disse Friskes Udbredning i de Egne af det atlantiske Omraade, hvor de klimatiske
Forhold er saaledes, at de opvoxende Aal overhovedet kan trives'.

Vi har i dette Arbejde kun beskæftiget os med den europæiske og amerikanske
Aal, væsentlig fordi disse to er de bedst kendte indenfor Slægten Anguilla. I det
pacifiske Omraade kommer der andre Aale-Arter med tilsyneladende andre
biologiske Forhold, men de vil, skønt en betydelig Række af Undersøgelser
allerede er foretagne, dog forst kunne blive behandlede biologisk, naar Under-
søgelserne over deres systematiske Forhold er bragte til en tilfredsstillende Afslut-
ning, hvad der forhaabentlig kan ske i Løbet af faa Aar.

Set i Belysning af mine tidligere ved Europa foretagne Undersøgelser over
Aalens Biologi kan de her fremdragne Forhold kun siges at bringe yderligere Be-
kræftelse. Adskillige af de der fremsatte Betragtningers Gyldighed er saaledes blevet
prøvet paa større Forhold, paa et meget videre Omraade, idet ogsaa Sydgræ*n-
serne for Aalenes Forekomst i Atlanterhavsomraadet er blevet draget med ind
i Undersøgelsen, der tidligere havde maaltel indskrænke sig til Nordgrænserne,
hvad der selvfølgelig ikke kunde give den Sikkerhed i Slutningerne f. Ex. med
Hensyn til Bestemmelsen af de minimale og maximale Temperaturer for Forplant-
ningen OSV.".

' I rent arktiske Egne, hvor det ferske Vand altid eller niesten altid er frossent, vil der natur-
ligvis ikke kunne leve Aal, selv om der var nok saa gode Betingelser for Tilgang af Yngel. L)et samme
gælder naturligvis ogsaa saadanne Vande, der indeholder giftige Mineraler eller Luftarter.

- Ved de tidligere Undersøgelser (1. c., 1900) var jeg jo kommen til det Resultat, at ea. 7° i en
Dybde af ea. 1Ü00 Meter omtrent maatle repræsentere den minimale Temperatur, hvorved Forplantningen
kunde foregaa, og efter hvad der i det foregaaende er meddelt, synes Forholdene ved Sydgrænsen at
fore til nogenlunde samme Resultat. Paa den anden Side er det udfra det Faktum, at Aalen (ifolge de

47 165

Hvis der endnu skulde være nogen, som tvivlede paa, at Ferskvandsaalen
yngler i Havet, vil de her fremsatte Betragtninger forhaabentlig bidrage til at
fjerne denne Tvivl, saaledes bl. a. det Faktum, at Aalene forekommer paa isolerede,
ofte helt ude i Oceanerne beliggende Øer, hvor Ferskvandsfisk ellers mangler (Azo-
rerne, Madeira, Bermudas, Balearerne f. Ex.). Dette vilde ellers være ganske ufor-
staaeligt, men, som viist i del foregaaende, bidrager det nu netop i høj Grad til
at styrke de her fremsatte Anskuelser, ifølge hvilke Aalens Forplantning sker ude
i Oceanet', hvor det er de paa Stedet herskende fysiske Forhold (Temperatur og
Saltholdighed), som er afgørende, og som derfor i første Linie bliver bestemmende
for Udhrediiingen.

Dersom man, hvad der er ganske berettiget, naar det drejer sig om et Ar-
bejde, der omhandler Fiskearter af stor økonomisk Betydning, tilsidst stiller det
Spørgsmaal, om der ved dette Arbejde er tilvejebragt nye Momenter og Resul-
tater af praktisk Interesse, da maa der svares, at selv om det tilsyneladende
er uden Betydning for det praktiske Aalefiskeri i Europa og Amerika, at man for-
staar Aarsagerne til Aalenes Udbredning i disse Omraader, holder dette dog ikke
ganske Stik overfor en nærmere Befragtning. Thi rent bortset fra at forøgcl Viden
altid frembyder Muligheder, som for eller senere maaske kan blive af Betydning,
er der et Forhold, som fortjener at fremhæves allerede nu. Jeg tænker her paa
Foretagelsen af saadanne Transplantationer af Aal og Aaleyngel , som man tiere
Steder allerede i længere Tid har realiseret, og som efter de sidste Aars Resultater i
Aaleforskningen synes at skulle tage stærkere Fart (jfr. den hamborgske Fiskeri-
direktør LCbbert's Forsøg med Indplantning af Aaleyngel fra Bristolkanalen til
Østersølandene, Fischer & Lübbert 1908).

Efter hvad der er fremført i det foregaaende, er det indlysende, at man,
naar man ønsker at transplantere Aal eller Aaleyngel, maa være ganske klar over,
om man vil propagere eller kun opdrætte de omplantede Exemplarer. Vi saa
jo, at store, paa Ferskvand rige, Arealer baade i Amerika og Afrika var aale-tomme,
saaledes Størstedelen af Vestafrika , hele det vestlige Amerika og Østkysten af Syd-
amerika. Dersom man til disse Egne vilde indføre Yngel af den europæiske eller

italienske Forfattere) yngler i Middelhavet, hvor Temperaturen i Dybet iklte synker under 13°, givet, at
den maximale Temperatur for Forplantningen ikke kan være under ca. 13°, saa at Spillerummet altsaa
bliver mindst ca. (j°. Maaske repræsenterer de ca. 13° Maximumstemperaturen, men vi har ingen Midler
til at afgøre dette, saaledes som det Iiar kunnet ske for adskillige Gadoiders Vedkommende (Scmirirr,
1909 a). tili Temperaturen i Dybet er intetsteds saa hoj som i Middelhavet, naar undtages det Rode Hav.
hvor den naaer den fænomenale Hojde af 21° i 1000 Meters Dybde. Desværre tør jeg ikke af de fore-
liggende altfor ufuldstændige Beretninger fra Egnene langs det Rode Hav slutte, at deres tilsyneladende
Mangel paa Aal virkelig er ensbetydende med, at disse Fisk ganske mangler, selv om dette er sand-
synligst. Denne Sag fortjener en nærmere Undersøgelse; thi det kunde jo meget godt tænkes, dersom
Aal virkelig mangler i Landene ved det Rode Hav, at Aarsagen hertil var den, at Temperaturerne og
Saltholdighederne i Dybet er for høje for Forplantningen, ligesom vi jo saa, at de andetsteds var for
lave. Dog kan ogsaa andre Forhold være bestemmende med Hensyn til den eventuelle Mangel af Aal
ved Rodehavets Kyster, saaledes disse Kysters overordentlige Torhed og Mangel paa Ferskvand.

' .leg minder ved denne Lejlighed om Fundet af en stor (90 cm. lang) Anguilla vulgaris i Maven
af en Kaskelot dræbt i Havet ved Azorerne (Vaillant, 1898, p. U29— 30, og Schmidt, IflOß, p. 145).

166 48

amerikanske Aal, ligesom man flere Steder har indført andre Ferskvandsfisk (navnlig
af Sa/;jio-Slægten) fra helt andre Egne af Jorden, da vilde man blive skuffet, hvis
man gjorde Regning paa, al saadanne transplanterede Aal ligesom Laxene skulde
vinde Fodfæste og formere sig, saa at man uden videre i Fremtiden kunde fiske
Aal her, hvor de tidligere ikke fandtes. Vi forstaar nu, at dette ikke kan lade sig
gøre, thi Betingelserne for, al Forplantningen kan finde Sted, har vi jo set mangler,
og det højeste, man i disse Egne kan opnaa ved Transplantationer, vil altsaa være
at finde gunstige Opdrætningssteder for de indplantede Individer. Paa denne Maade
kan den foreliggende Undersøgelse bidrage sit til Undgaaeise af Fejltagelser, naar
det drejer sig om at indføre F'erskvandsaal til saadanne Sleder, hvor de i For-
vejen mangler.

I denne Sammenhæng vil det tilsidsl have sin store Interesse at se lidt nærmere
paa de Omplantningsforsøg, man har foretaget i de Forenede Stater. I et over-
ordentlig interessant Arbejde (A review of the history and results of the attempts
lo acclimatize fish and other water animals in the Pacific States, U. S. Bulletin,
1896, p. 379—472) har Hugh M. Smith gjort Rede for det slorslaaede Arbejde, der
er udført med Omplantning af Fisk fra de østlige til de vestlige Slater. Der om-
tales her en hel Række af Fisk, der med største Held er overfort til Stillehavs-
kyslen, hvor de har vundet udmærket Fodfæste og ved deres Frugtbarhed er blevne
saa talrige, at de har faael stor Betydning for Fiskeriet. Blandt saadanne Fiske-
arter kan nævnes "shad" {Cliipea sapid issima), "striped bass" (Roccus lineatus),
forskellige Karper {Cypriniis carpio og Varieteter), forskellige Laxe-Arter, "catfish"
{Ameiiiriis-Arler etc.) etc. etc. Det er navnlig af stor Interesse at læse om, hvorledes
flere af disse Fisk modificerer deres Gydetid efter de nye Forhold, de er komne til
at leve under, og om hvor overordentlig stærkt de forplanter sig i deres nye Hjem,
saa at de i flere Tilfælde hurtigt breder sig over store Arealer.

De Forsøg, der her navnlig interesserer os, er naturligvis de, der udførtes
med den Hensigt at akklimatisere den i de østlige Stater aim. forekommende Aal
{Anguilla cbrijsijpa) i Veststaterne. De paabegyndtes af den bekendte Mr. Livingston
Stone af "the U. S. Commission of Fish and Fisheries", der har indlagt sig saa
stor en Fortjeneste af Udviklingen af Fiske-Kultur og Fiske-Akklimatisation, og som
førte de til Udsætning bestemte Fisk over Kontinentet i en saakaldt "aquarium car".

Forsøgene udførtes i Aarene 1874, 1879 og 1882, og det lykkedes at overføre
adskillige Tusinde mindre og større Aal i levedygtig Stand, hvilke blev udsatte paa
forskellige Steder i ferskt og salt Vand i Nærheden af San Francisco. I Beretninger
fra "the Commissioners of Fisheries of the State of California" gives der nu i de
følgende Aar Underretning om de udsatte Fisks videre Skæbne. Jeg skal efter
Hugh M. Smith anføre disse.

49 167

1874—75. "Of the fresh-water eels iilaccd in a tributary of tlie Sacramento River, we learn
lliat one had been cauj^ht in Willow Sloufih, in Yolo County, which had grown to
be more than a foot in length. We have no knowledge that the salt-water eels jilaced
in Sacramento Bay have ever been seen".

1870—77, It was stated that a few eels had been caught, but they had not become numerous.
The next report recorded the ca])ture of several "taken in the fresh water, near Sa-
cramento, full grown, and 3 feet in length".
1880. "Occasionally we hear of an eel being captured, but as yet they have not shown an

increase in proportion to that of other imported TlsIi"'.
1882. "The San Francisco Chronicle of February 8 reports the catch by George Bird of
the first eel, resulting from a ])lant of 12,<iOO made by the (California fish commis-
sioners. It was caught on the easterly shore of San Francisco Bay and measured
3 feet in length".

1883—84. "Eels jilaced in our waters by the former commissioners, have not been a success.
It is probable that the place where they were deposited and where they have made
their home has not yet been discovered, at all events none have been taken since
they were planted. It seems to us that they ought to do well in our inland waters,
as they are fond of the bottoms of ponds or streams where mud prevails, as is the
case in our lakes and rivers".

Oni Forholdene 10 Aar senere meddeler Hugh M. Smith følgende paa Grundlag
af egne Erfaringer:

"In 1894, when the writer visited the Pacific Coast, no eels were at any time seen in the
markets of San Francisco or other cities, and the following statement, based on his obser-
vations, was printed in a report embodying the data on certain phases of the fishing industry
at the time: "Inquiries regarding the results of the attemjited acclimatization of the eel {An-
guilla clirijsypa) on this coast are apt to elicit misleading information unless great care is
exercised. In the San Francisco markets one learns that eels are not infrequently exposed
for sale, and that both salt water and river fishermen catch them occasionally, but an exa-
mination of the reported eels usually shows them to be lamprej's "'.

Hugh M. Smith slutter sin Omtale af Forsøgene paa at akklimatisere Aalen i
Californien med følgende Ord:

"In view of the hardiness and great prolificness of the eel, it is somewhat remarkable
that it has not gained a firm hold in Calilbrnia and become abundant. It is, of course, pos-
sible that the failure to catch more of them has been due to the absence of suitable pots or
traps, but the fact that the fish are so seldom taken with the various forms of apparatus now
used can only be explained by their actual scarcity, and in their last report (1894—95) the
California fish commissioners regard the eel as one of the fish from whose attempted intro-
duction "no result can be saiil to have come"'.

Med vor nuværende Viden er det ikke vanskeligt at indse, hvorfor disse Forsøg
paa at akklimatisere Aalen ved Stillehavets Kyster mislykkedes. Tværtimod synes
de, saa vidt det da efter de foreliggende Beretninger er muligt at domme, at være
forløbne nøjagtigt, som det var al vente: I de første Aar efter Udsætningen fanges
der af og til Aal, hvoraf nogle synes at have voxet meget hurtigt, maaske paa
Grund af de gunstige Lokaliteter, man havde valgt til Udsættelsen. Men efter faa
Aars Forløb er det hele forbi, uden at der som af de andre transplanterede Fiske-
arter har vist sig Yngel til Erstatning og Mangfoldiggørelse af den udsalte Bestand.

n. K. I). Vi.li'iisU. SclsU. SUr., 7. Il.i-kke. nnlurviilcnsU. .);; m:illu-m. Aid. VIII. :i. 22

168 50

Paa lignende Maade kan enhver Gentagelse af disse Forsøg forudsiges at ville
gaa, thi selv om man sørger for at give de transplanterede Aal nok saa gunstige
Forhold at voxe op under, vil dog ingen menneskelig Magt kunne skaffe dem de
Forhold i Havet udenfor, som de behøver for at kunne forplante sig.

En anden Sag er det jo naturligvis, dersom det skulde kunne tænkes at være
fordelagtigt fra Øststaterne til Veststaterne at overføre et Antal Aaleyngel med den
Hensigt senere at "høste" de samme Individer, naar de var voxede op, saaledes
som det sker paa flere saadanne Steder i Europa, hvor Aalefiskeriets Teknik er
særlig højt udviklet, eller hvor Priserne paa Aalen, som forhandles levende, er
meget høje. Men herom kan der vist neppe være Tale i Amerika, i alt Fald ikke
saalænge Aalefiskeriet ikke spiller nogen større Rolle end del nu er Tilfældet.

V. RESUME AF DE VIGTIGSTE RESULTATEH.

Ferskvandsaal (A;)(/(n7/a-Slægten) er vidi udbredte over Jorden og findes saa-
ledes baade i det atlantiske, indiske og pacifiske Omraade. Kun de i det atlantiske
Omraade forekommende, nemlig Anguilla vuhjaris, Tiirt., som lever i den østlige,
og Angiiilln chrysijpa, Raf, der hører hjemme i den vestlige Del af dette Omraade,
og som begge er ensfarvede, er her gjorte til Genstand for Omtale, da de er de
eneste, som er nogenlunde vel karakteriserede i systematisk og biologisk Henseende.

I det indiske og det pacifiske Omraade findes der foruden ensfarvede ogsaa
brogede Anguilla, men man véd foreløbig for lidt om dem, til at deres Udbrednings-
forhold kan behandles paa lignende Maade, som her er sket for Atlanterhavs-For-
mernes Vedkommende (jfr. S. 122 og 147 — 52).

Medens Ferskvandsaal mangler ved Stillehavskysterne baade af Nord- og Syd-
amerika, findes de ved de atlantiske Kyster af Nordamerika og Mexico, i størst
Mængde i Canada's og de Forenede Staters østligste Del, men iøvrigt lige fra det
sydligste Grønland og Labrador til det vestindiske Archipelag og Guiana. Derimod
mangler de i Sydamerika syd for Guiana, baade i Brasiliens og Argentinas store
Flodsystemer, og det Punkt, hvor de forsvinder, maa saaledes ligge etsieds i det
nordlige Brasilien eller deromkring (jfr. S. 138 og Kortet).

Desuden forekommer de paa saa at sige alle de i Atlanlerhavet Nord for
Ækvator beliggende Øer (Bermudas, Azorerne, Madeira, Canarerne, Island etc.), og,
hvad der særlig fortjener at fremhæves, selv paa saadanne, hvor andre Ferskvands-
fisk ganske mangler (jfr. S. 138 — 42 og Kortet).

Ved Østranden af det atlantiske Ocean er Aalenes Udbredningsforhold følgende.
De mangler ved Nordkysten af Asien og Rusland, men findes omtrent fra Nordcap
i det nordlige Norge og sydefter langs Europas Kyster, ved alle Middelhavets Kysler
(undtagen det Sorte Havs) og ved den nordvestligste Del af Afrikas Kyst. Her for-
svinder de, sandsynligvis ved Rio del Oro-Omraadel eller i Senegal, og mangler der-
efter ved hele Afrikas Vestkyst, saaledes i Niger's og Congo's store Flodomraader
(jfr. S. 146 og Kortet).

I Sydafrika, omtrent ved Cap Agulhas, træffes aller Ferskvandsaal, og .saadanne
tindes fremdeles paa Østkysten af Afrika, Sydkysten af Asien og paa Øerne i det
indiske Ocean, saaledes som det strax fremgaar af Udbredningskortel. Det er endnu

170 52

ikke fastslaaet, i hvilket Forhold de her forekommende AnyiiiUa-Arlev, hvoriblandt
der findes baade ensfarvede og brogede, staar lil de atlantiske A. cbrijsijpa og
A. vulgaris (jfr. S. 148 og Kortet).

Det er saaledes konstateret, at de atlantiske Ferskvandsaal lever baade i tro-
piske, i varmt og koldt tempererede, ja endog i arktiske Egne, men netop med
Henblik paa denne forbavsende Evne til at kunne finde sig i de mest forskellig-
artede ydre Forhold bliver deres faktiske Udbredning tilsyneladende uforstaaelig.
Specielt gælder dette det mæi-kelige Forhold, at Udbrcdningen, saaledes som det
strax fremgaar af Kortet, baade i det vestlige og østlige Omraade viser en paa-
faldende pludselig Standsning sydpaa, saa at Størstedelen af Sydamerika og Vest-
afrika, hvor nogle af Verdens største og fiskerigeste Ferskvandssystenier findes, er
ganske tomme for Aal, tiltrods for at der mangfoldige Steder her skulde synes at
være udmærkede Betingelser for deres Trivsel. Ogsaa Aalenes P'orekomst paa
oceaniske Øer, hvor Ferskvandsfisk ellers mangler, er tilsyneladende uforstaaelig
(jfr. S. 153).

For at komme til en Forslaaelse af Aalenes Udbredning, specielt deraf al de
tiltrods for deres store Indifferens overfor forskelligartede ydre Forhold dog ikke
har formaaet at trænge længere sydpaa ved Atlanterhavels Kyster, var det nød-
vendigt at minde om nogle af de Resultater, der er vundne ved de seneste Aars
Havforskninger. Jeg lænker her paa Konstateringen af, at der ofte er meget slor
Forskel paa en Fiskearls Følsomhed overfor Omgivelserne i dens Opvæxtpcriode
og dens Gydeperiode, saaledes at den i Gydeperioden stiller langt bestemtere og
ofte helt andre Krav til de ydre Forhold (Dybde, Temperalur, Saltholdighed) end
under Opvæxten, hvoraf Følgen igen bliver, at Udbredningen ofte kan være en hel
anden i Gydetiden end under Opvæxten (jfr. Schmidt, 1909 a, p. 11, 151). Desuden
følger heraf, at det i første Linie er de Krav, der i Gydeliden stilles lil de ydre
Forhold, som bliver bestemmende for Udbredningen, eller med andre Ord, for at
forstaa Udbredningen maa vi skaffe os Underretning om, hvilke Krav til de
ydre Omgivelser Arten stiller for at kunne udføre sin Forplantning.
Hermed er vi naaede til Sagens Kerne.

Undersøgelser foretagne siden 1904 med det danske Undersøgelsesskib "Thor"
og det irske "Helga" i Atlanterhavet Vest for Europa havde vist (Schmidt, 1906,
p. 256), at den europæiske Ferskvandsaal for at kunne forplante sig kræver store
Dybder (mindst ca. 1000 Meter) i Forbindelse med høj Saltholdighed og Temperatur
af Vandet, nemlig over 35,20 "/o og over 7° i 1000 Meters Dybde. Ud fra delte blev
Aalens Udbredning og Vandringer i den nordlige Del af Europa fuldkommen for-
slaaelige (jfr. S. 155 — 57).

Det ligger nu nær at anvende de for den nordøstlige Del af Atlanterhavet
konstaterede Forhold paa hele Omraadet. Betragter vi Udbredningskortet, hvor
Temperalurerne i 1000 Meters Dybde er afsatte, bliver de atlantiske Ferskvandsaals
Udbredning med eet Slag ganske klar. Saaledes forstaar vi, at Aarsagen til Mangelen
af Aal i hele Sydamerikas, del vestlige Nordamerikas og Vestafrikas store Ferskvands-

53 171

systemer er, at Temperaturen i Havet udenfor er for lav til, at Forplant-
ning kan finde Sted. Vi maa derfor næslen. sige, selv om det klinger paradoxalt,
at i disse Egne, som indeholder nogle af Jordens varmeste Lande, er
der for koldt, til at Fersk vand saa le ne kan existere (jfr. S. 156 og Kortet).

Men ogsaa den faktiske Forekomst af Aalene i det atlantiske Omraade bliver
forstaaclig, naar vi gaar ud fra, ht de forplanter sig i Havet og her kun, hvor Tem-
I)eraturen og Saltholdigheden i Dybet overstiger de ovenfor nævnte Værdier.

Kun ved at Forplantningen foregaar ude i Havet, bliver Ferskvandsaalenes
Forekomst paa saadanne oceaniske Øer, hvor Ferskvandsfisk ellers ganske mangler,
forstaaclig (jfr. S. 157 og Kortet). Af Kortet ses, at alle de oceaniske Øer i
Atlanterhavet, hvor Aalene forekommer, ligger indenfor det Om-
raade, hvor Temperaturen i Dybet er høj.

Hvad angaar den østlige Del af Atlanterhavsomraadet, da har jeg nu med
"Thor" paavist, at Anyiiilla viihjaris's Forplantning finder Sted paa hele Strækningen
fra Færøerne til Marokkos Vestkyst (jfr. S. 158 og Kortet). Tidligere har jeg (Schmidt,
190(5) gjort Rede for, hvorledes Yngelen fra Gydepladserne Vest for de britiske Øer
og Frankrig under og efter Forvandlingen bevæger sig østefter, og hvorledes hele
det nordøstlige Europas Aalebestand rekruteres herfra. Det fremgik heraf, at
Yngelens Vandringer, som begunstiges af Strømmenes Retning og af det pelagiske
Livs usædvanlig lange Varighed, kan have en overraskende Udstrækning (jfr. Af-
standene fra den indre Del af Østersøen eller fra det nordligste Norge til 1000 Meter
Kurven i Atlanterhavet Vest for Europa) (jfr. S. 157 og Kortet).

Set paa Baggrund heraf er den amerikanske Aals (Ang. chrysypa) Udbredning
i den vestlige Del af Omraadet meget forstaaelig, og det synes, som den i sine
biologiske Forhold kommer den europæiske meget nær, hvad der heller ikke er
underligt, eftersom de er meget nær beslægtede. Det er ved Fund af Larver kon-
stateret, at Anguilla chrysypa forplanter sig i den Del af Havet udfor de Forenede
Stater, hvor Temperaturen i Dybet naaer den største Højde i hele den vestlige Del
af det atlantiske Ocean (jfr. Kortet, hvor Fundene er afsatte).

At Centrum for Produktionen af den amerikanske Ferskvandsaal maa ligge
her, synes den faktiske Udbredning af denne Art ogsaa at vise hen til. Først og
fremmest siger den amerikanske Fiskeristatistik os, at ikke mindre end ca. 98 "/o af
de Aal, der fiskes i de Forenede Stater, kommer fra det atlantiske Omraade, og
kun ca. 2 "/o fra Vande, der er tributære til den mexikanske Bugl (jfr. S. 128).
Endnu mere slaaende er det maaske, at af de 3,822,434 Ibs, som er det samlede
Udbytte af Aalefiskerierne i de Forenede Stater, stammer over 3 Millioner Ibs fra
Aal, der som Yngel er trængt op i det ferske Vand paa den korte Strækning mellem
Cape Cod og Cape Hatteras, der, som man ser af Kortet, ligger lidl nordligere end
det Omraade, hvor det varmeste Vand i Dybet findes (jfr. S. 161).

Ogsaa Tidspunktet for Aaleyngelcns Opstigning i det ferske Vand paa de for-
skellige Steder af Fristaternes og Canadas Østkyst synes, saavidt det efter de spar-
somme Oplysninger er kendt, at vise i .samme Retning (jfr. S. 161).

172 ' 54

All tyder da paa, al Produklionscenliel for den amerikanske Aal
(Anguilla cbrysypo), hvorfra selv de nordligste Egne (Canada, Newfoundland, Labra-
dor, Grønland) forsynes med Yngel, maa være beliggende udfor de Dele af de
Forenede Staters Østkyst, hvor Temperaturen i Dybet naar den
største Højde i hele den vestlige Del af Atlanterhavet (jfr. Side 162 og Kortet).

Selv om Afstandene herfra til den nordligste Del af det Omraade, hvor A. chrij-
sijpa lever (Newfoundland, Labrador, Syd-Grønland) er meget betydelige, er de
dog ikke større end de, som Yngelen af den europæiske Aal maa tilbagelægge
fra Ynglepladserne Vest for Europa, og Vandringen vil i høj Grad lettes af Styrken
og Retningen af Havstrømmene udfor Nordamerikas Øslkysl (jfr. S. 159 og Kortet).

Havstrømmene er saaledes en sekundær Faktor af stor Betydning for Aalenes
Udbredning, idel de kan bevirke, al Forekomsten udstræ'kkes til Egne, der ligger
fjærnt fra Ynglestederne, som Tilfældet jo var baade i del nordlige Europa og
det nordlige Amerika. Her begunstigede Retningen af Strømmen en saadan Ud-
bredning nordefter fra Ynglepladserne. Derimod er Slromrelningen ikke gunstig
for en tilsvarende Udbredning i sydlig Retning fra disse, og Følgen heraf bliver
da ogsaa den, at Aalenes Sydgrænse kommer til at ligge langt nordligere i Forhold
til Ynglepladserne, end man maaske kunde vente sig, naar man har sel, hvor langt
Nord for Ynglepladserne deres Forekomst rækker (jfr. S. L'iU og Korlel).

Ved en Sammenligning mellem Udbredningskortet og et Strømkorl vil det træde
lydeligt frem, at Aalenes Udbredning svarer lenimelig nøje til Periferien af den store
anticykloniske Cirkulationsbevægelse i det nordlige Atlanterhav.

At Aalene ogsaa efter at være komne ind i Ferskvand kan tilbagelægge uhyre
Vejlængder, har den foregaaende Beskrivelse vist tiere Exempler paa. Der kan saa-
ledes bl. a. henvises lil Sydafrika, hvor der i Omegnen af Pretoria findes Aal, som er
vandrede op den lange Vej fra Havet henholdsvis gennem Crocodile- og Orange-
Systemerne. Endnu mere slaaende Exempler finder vi i Nordamerikas Forenede
Slater, hvor der i nogle af de Stater, der grænser op lil de store Søer, og som
ligger meget fjærnt fra Havet, forekommer Aal (jfr. S. 148 og 129).

Ejendommeligt er det her i samme Stat, f. Ex. i Ohio, Illinois og Indiana,
at finde Aal, hvoraf nogle er trængte op fra den mexikanske Golf gennem Mississipi-
og andre fra selve Atlanterhavet gennem St. Lawrence-Systemet. I Sydafrika finder
vi lignende Forhold, idet der ved Pretoria i ferske Vande, der ligger nær hinanden,
forekommer Aal af meget forskellig Oprindelse, nemlig stammende henholdsvis
fra del indiske og det atlantiske Ocean (jfr. S. 130 og 148).

55 173

Vi har sel, al Ferskvandsaalenes Udbredning indenfor del allanliske Omraade
i førsle Linie afhænger af Tern pe ra lurerne i Havels Dyb, idel del er disse,
som er afgørende for, om Forplanlningen Ivan finde Sted. At del dog ikke altid
alene er Temperaturen i Dybet, som afgør, om Aalen kan forplante sig i et Hav-
omraade, som i øvrigt er dybt nok, ser vi af det Sorte Hav; thi her, hvor Tempe-
raturen selv paa de største Dybder ikke synker under ca. 9°, frembringes der ingen
Aaleyngel, hvad der paa en slaaende Maade giver sig tilkende ved, at Aalen
mangler i alle de store Floder, der har Afløb til det Sorte Hav. Her maa altsaa
andre Momenter gøre sig gældende, og ved en nærmere Betragtning af de hydro-
grafiske Forhold faar man da ogsaa Forklaringen, idet Vandet i Dybet baade er
altfor lidet salt, højst ca. 22 "/oo, og desuden indeholder betydelige Mængder af den
alt højere organisk Liv udelukkende Svovlbrinte (jfr. S. 162).

Paa forskellige Steder af Jorden, hvor Ferskvandsaal ikke før fandtes, har man
gjort Forsøg med at udplante Yngel i det Haab, at de dér skulde trives og formere
sig ligesom flere andre Ferskvandsfisk, hvormed saadanne Experimenter var lyk-
kedes. Disse Forsøg har dog kun bragt Skuffelse. Den foreliggende Undersøgelse
giver Forklaringen herpaa og viser, at enhver Gentagelse heraf maa give samme ne-
gative Resultat, idet det ikke er muligt for nogen menneskelig Magt at tilvejebringe
saadanne Forhold i Havet, som kræves til vore atlantiske Aals Forplantning, naar
de ikke i Forvejen er tilstede. En hel anden Sag er det, at det i mange Tilfælde
kan være meget nyttigt at udsætte og opdrætte Aaleyngel paa saadanne Steder, hvor
Aalen i Forvejen ikke findes, eller hvor der ikke er nok af den. Dette har man
allerede realiseret paa flere Steder i Europa, i størst Maalestok i Donau-Floden og
i Tyskland, og det vil sikkert kunne udføres med Held ogsaa andre Steder i
Lande, hvor Aalepriserne er store og Fiskeriels Teknik højt udviklet. Men man
maa da være klar over, at man kun kan opnaa at opdrætte (og høste) de ud-
salte Exemplarer, ikke al propagere dem, saaledes som det er lykkedes med
adskillige andre Ferskvandsfisk; thi Aalen er kun i højst uegentlig Forstand en
Ferskvandsfisk; den er tværtimod en ægte atlantisk Dybhavsfisk, hvis Skæbne i
første Linie afgøres ude i det store aabne Hav (jfr. S. 165 fT.).

VI. LITTERATURLISTE.

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— (1877). W.Peters: Ueber die von Herrn D.C.Sachs in Venezuela ges. Fische (Monatsber. d.

Kgl Preuss. Akad. d. Wiss. zu Berlin, 1877, 469).
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(Jahrb. d. Hamburg. Wiss. Anstalten. X Jahrg.. 2te Hälfte, 1892, p. 169).

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Espanola de Historia Natural, vol. 5, 1876, p. 192).
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della Sezione fiorentina della Societa africana d'Italia, vol. VII, Firenze, 1891).
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(Monatsber. Kgl. Preuss. Akad. d. Wiss., Berlin, 1877, p. 621).
Regan (1905) C.Tate Regan: A collection of Fishes made by Dr. H. Gadow in Southern Mexico

(Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist. (7), vol. 16, 1905, p. 361-63.
Sauvage (1880-81) H. E. Sauvage: Étude sur la faune ichthyologique de L'Ogôoué (Nouvelles

Archives du Museum, 2 sér.. Tome 3, 1880 81).

— (1882) H. E. Sauvage: Poissons du Territoire d'Assinie (Côte-dOr) (Bull. Soc. Zool. France, 1882,

p. 313-25).

Sauvage (Ghandidier, 1891) H. Sauvage: Histoire naturelle des poissons, in Alfred Ghandidier:

Histoire Physique, Naturelle et Politique de Madagascar, vol. XVI, Paris 1891.

59 177

Sawyhr (1S87|. ... J. N. Sawyer: Tlic brccdiii},' habits u( tlic et-l (Hull. U. S. Fish (lümmission, vol. \'I,

for 188(;, 1887).
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(Rapports ct Proees-Verbaux du Omseil International ]iour I'E.xploration de la Mer, vol. V, No. 4,

Copenhague UiOd).

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Gadoids in the North Atlantic from Iceland to Spain (Rapports et Proces-Verbaux du Conseil
International pour l'Exploration de la Mer. vol. X, No. 4, Copenhague 1909).

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for 1895, Washington, 1890. p. 379-472).
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Waters of the District of Columbia and Vicinity (Bull. U. S. F'ish Commission, vol. XVIII for 1898,

1899).
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190.Î, p. 333-427).
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23*

1 78 ()0

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Tunisiana raccolti da G. e L. Doria, Genova, 1884, p. .')2).

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Ergebnisse einer Heise in Nicdcrländ. Ost-Indien, vol. 111. 1894.

INDHOLD.

Side

1. Indledning (3) 121

11. Ueskrivelse iif Ferskvandsaalenes Udbredning ((>) 124

A. Vestlige Del af Oniraadet ((>) 124

B. Atlantiske Øer (20) 138

C. Østlige Del af Oniraadet (24) 142

III. Om de .\aisaj;er, der liestemmer Ferskvandsaalenes lldltredning (35) 153

IV. Afsluttende Bemærkninger (4(3) 164

V. Resumé af de vigtigste Resultater (51) 169

VI. Litteraturliste (56) 174

K D. ViDENSK. Selsk. Skr., naturv. oo math. Afp. 7. R., VIII. 3 [Johs. Schmidt|

THE HOT SPRINGS OF ICELAND

THORKELL THORKELSSON

WITH 13 PLATES

D. Kgl. Danske Vidensk. Sei.sk. Skrifter. 7. K.ekke, naturvidensk. og mathem. Afd. VIII. 4

•-C=5»£*7«=>-«-

KØBENHAVN

BIANCO LUNOS BOGTRYKKERI
1910

(The plates referred to in the text will be found at the end of Part III.)

Kjn the occasion of my exploration of the hot springs in the south-west of
Iceland in the summer of 1904, it was shown that the gases from these springs
contain radioactive emanations, and at the subsequent investigation in the laboratory,
it was again proved by Prof. K. Prytz and myself, that the gases emanating from
the springs contain argon and helium. As these investigations seemed to justify
the opinion that a more extensive exploration of the radioactivity of the Icelandic
springs would, on account ot the isolated position and the volcanic nature of the
island, contribute considerably to an elucidation of the question as to what extent
radioactive substances are to be found in the earth, as well as their significance
with regard to the earth's temperature, I undertook, in the summer of 1906, a new
expedition to the hot springs of Iceland.

I received from the Carlsberg Fund for the expenses of this expedition, 5800
Kroner, {Ï 322. 4. 6), — 5000 Kroner for the journey, and 800 Kroner for the examina-
tion of the materials collected on the journey. I herewith tender the directors of
the Carlsberg Fund my respectful thanks for this support.

The experimental part of the preparations for the journey, as well as the
analytical work necessary to determine the composition of the hot spring gases, by
means of the sample gases taken, was carried out, with Prof. K. Prytz's permission,
in the "Polytekniske Læreanstalts fysiske Laboratorium" (the physical laboratory of
the Polytechnic Academy) in Copenhagen. For this permission, and for his kind
advice in regard to the experimental work, 1 offer Prof. K. Prytz my heartfelt thanks.
I also thank Mr. S. Jonsson, who accompanied me on my journey in 190Î, for his
interest in these investigations, evidenced by his willingness to enter a second time
on the hardships of the journey, in order to help me in the scientific work. The
results 1 have attained through this expedition, are to a great extent due to his
capable assistance.

The present treatise will deal freely only with the scientific work done on
the journey and in the laboratory, together with its results, disregarding for the
most part the equipment and the details of the journey. But for the sake of
orientation, 1 have included a small map of Iceland (Fig. 1), on which our route
and the spring districts visited are marked.

' K. Prytz og Th. Thorkelsson : Oversigt over det kgl. danske Videnskabernes Selskabs Forhand-
linger 1U05, p. 317.

24*

182 4

I have divided my treatise into three parts. The first contains a description
of the springs we examined, while the second part treats of the methods employed
in the investigation, and the third enumerates and discusses the results of the
experiments.

In the third part, besides viewing the nature of the springs from a new stand-
point, - which these experiments seem to justify, - I have included several well-
known theories, in so far as the latter are borne out by the present investigations;
and thereby have endeavoured to make the subject under consideration more conse-
quent and complete.

Description of the Springs.

Mj'vatn.

The hot springs at Myvatn have, in the course of time, often been described
by scientific visitors to the spot. Johnstrup', who visited these springs in 1871,
has given a very detailed description of them, and has constructed a map of the
surroundings of the springs. I will therefore content myself with a very short,
summary description, and I must refer those who require more detailed information
regarding these districts, to Johnstrup's excellent treatise. Nevertheless, in order
to make the positions clearer, I have included one of Johnstrup's maps of the
springs, (Fig. 2). We stayed at Myvatn from the 19th. June to the 1st. July 1906.
During the first few days we pitched our tent a little to the north of the springs,
to the east of Ndmafjall (Namafjeld on the map). But at that place a proper
supply of water was not to be had, so that we were obliged to gather snow from
the crevices of the surrounding lava, and use the water obtained by melting it,
both in our experiments and for drinking purposes. This had of course great
disadvantages, and as we could not keep our horses from straying from this place,
we eventually moved nearer to^ the farm of Reykjahh'(\ Thence we paid several
visits to the springs.

The hot springs at Myvatn are found chiefly at two places, viz. at Krafta
and at Ndmafjall. The hot springs at Krafla are for the most part solfataras of
little or no significance, which are situated here and there in a large ravine which
reaches from north to south to the immediate west of Krafla.

On the eastern slope of the ravine nearest to the south, is Lilla Viti, an

energetic and extremely noisy fumarole, which reminds one, on account of the

whistling sound emitted, of Öskurholshver (the roaring hill) at HveravelUr. As Litla

Viti is externally very different to the small solfataras which lie a little to the

' Den naturhistoriske Forenings Festslirift. Kobenliavn, 1890.

5 183

norlh in the same ravine, we had intended to take samples of the gases from this
spring, but we had unfortunately to give up the idea, as on closer examination
it became evident that to collect the gas at that place would be an exceedingly
dangerous undertaking.

To the north-west of the ravine mentioned, and separated from it by a high
ridge of gravel, are the three lakes shown on the map. The largest of these, which
is situated farthest west, covers the bottom of the wellknown crater Stora Viti, or
Helviti. The lake is enclosed on all sides by the steep edges of the crater. Towards

Brei 6 1 t'i 0 r 6 u T

LANjO

VestTnajuiav/ioT ■ -'(J"

Fi^. 1. Icehiiid.
(Showing route and spring (Mstrict.s visited.)

the east, where the brink of the crater is highest, it reaches, according to a measure-
ment made by means of an aneroid barometer, the altitude of 55 m. above the level
of the water. To the west the edge only reaches the height of about 20 m., on
account of the declivity on which it stands. The two other lakes were, when we
visited the spot, formed into one single lake. This is most probably not because
a subversion has taken place, but is simjily the result of the surface of the two
lakes becoming higher, so that they communicate. Like Helvi'ti, these twin lakes
are surrounded by rather high banks sloping down to the surface of the water,
but unlike Helviti, the north-eastern and eastern slopes ai'e covered with active
solfataras. The photograph (Plate I, a) shows these twin lakes, from the south ;

184 6

the light-coloured sections to the right represent the position of the solfataras.
The light colour is chiefly to be attributed to the sulphurous deposit from the
springs. We examined here the gases from two springs, viz. Krafla No. 1 ', imme-
diately to the east of the northern lake, and Krafla No. 2, to the north-east of the
southern lake. The springs were identical in outward appearance, both being small
pools of turbid water, with strong gaseous exhalations. Their altitude above the
surface of the lakes was 10 cm., while they were 615 m. above the level of the sea.
The temperature of the water in the twin lakes was 11.5° C. on the surface; the
surface temperature of the water in Helvfti, taken at the same time, was 14°; whilst
the temperature of the air was 3°. These observations of temperature seem to
indicate that the water in Helvi'ti continually receives considerable heat from the
interior of the earth, in spile of the fact that it is impossible to see the least sign,
on the surface of the lake, that there is at present any connection between the
water in Helviti and the torrid interior of the earth. Helvfti probably receives
most of its heat by conduction. The twin lakes apparently receive no little heat
from the springs on their banks.

Ndmafjall is a palagonitic mountain of which the highest point, according to
the altitude we took, is 500 m. above sea-level ; Johnstrup estimates its height at
498m. Here the palagonitic tuffs are much disintegrated; in many places the loose,
mouldering tuffs form a stratum more than a metre thick. Near Namafjall there
is a great profusion of solfataras with considerable sulphurous deposit. Most of
the solfataras are situated right up on the mountain, on its eastern slope. Smaller
groups of solfataras are also to be found at Bjarnarflag, a tufa plain to the west
of Namafjall.

To the east of Namafjall is, on the other hand, a group of hot springs con-
sisting of from 8 to 10 large ugly mud pools (360 m. above sea-level). These sloughs,
which stretch in a line from north to south, are bounded on the east by a field
of lava; it appears that the mouldering tufa, which descends from the eastern side
of Namafjall, has forced the outlet of the springs towards the lava. We examined
the gases from three places in this group of sloughs.

The gas sample numbered Namafjall No. 1 is from the largest slough in the
group, the position of which is to the extreme north-west (Plate I, h). Namafjall
No. 2 is taken from a smaller cavity by the edge of the lava, to the east of No. 1.
Namafjall No. 3 comes from the slough second in point of power; it is situated a
little south of the centre of the group.

Besides the above mentioned sloughs, we saw some in a groove on the east
of Namafjall, high up at the top of the mountain. These springs were surrounded
on all sides by solfataras, so that we could not approach them, but they appeared
to be very active. The southern part of Namafjall is flat on top, and in the centre
of this plain is a little isolated group of sloughs, consisting of 3 springs ; the gas,
marked Namafjall No. 4, is taken from this group, (490 m. above sea-level).

1 Cf. Part III, Table 1.

185

Fig. '1. The hot spring district at Myvalii.

t.lOHNSTHrP.)

/ /Vi/« IDa/y.UI

186 8

Nâmafjall No. 5 is from a little solfatara in Bjarnarflag. The soil was so
damp at this place, that it was possible to collect the gases by packing the humid
tufa around the funnel, so that the gases were forced through the tubes into the
collecting bottle.

To the west of Bjarnarflag, — and named after it, — is Bjarnarflaijshraun, a
wild disorderly stretch of lava, ejected from a cleft of craters in Jaràhadshôlar, to
the south-west of Bjarnarflag, (Plate II, a). Here and there, among this lava, warm
damp gases exude from fissures and cavities. We made an examination of the
gases emitted, in two places, viz. Reykjahlid No. 1, which was taken just by the
crater cleft (354 m. above sea-level); and Reykjahlid No. 2, from the western part
of Bjarnarflagshraun (326 m. above sea-level). These emissions of gases are not
confined to Bjarnarflagshraun, although they are more in evidence there. Both in
the lava to the east of Nâmafjall, and in the older lava as far down as the farm
of Reykjahli(\ we found similar exhalations.

A short distance south of Reykjahh'ö there is a large fissure in the lava,
Ståragjd; the water at the bottom of it was 29.4^ C. (Johnstrup took the temperature
of the water in the same rift ; he found it 30° C.) Since the temperature of the
water was, as far as we could perceive, quite uninfluenced by variations in the
temperature of the atmosphere, the relatively high temperature must doubtless be
attributed to terrestrial heat.

We noticed hot exhalations at several places in the neighbourhood of Störagjä,
which also shows that an arm of the terrestrial heat at this place branches out as
far as Myvatn.

Reykir in Skagafjörfliir.

The hot springs near the farm Heykir in Skayafjördur are usually called Reyk-
jalaugar. We sjjent eight days at these springs, from the 13lh. to the 2()th. July
1906. On account of most unfavourable weather, our stay was longer than we
had arranged for. We pitched our tent on the eastern (right) bank of the river,
(Suartà), which runs past the farm. The site of our tent was 45 m. above sea-level ;
the farm itself is situated about 8 m. higher, on a hill of conglomerate and sand-
stone. On the same hill, to the south and south-east of the farm, are most of the
hot springs. These are a striking contrast to the dirty, fætid mud springs and
solfataras at Myvatn. The water is clear, and a luxuriant stretch of grass reaches
to the brink of the springs, whereas the soil by the springs at Myvatn is bare
and waste. We tested the gases from three of the most important springs in this
neighbourhood. The sample Reykir No. 1 is from Sundlaugarhuer, the most southerly
spring in the group. The warm water from the spring is used to impart to the
adjacent swimming-bath ("sundlaug") a tepid temperature. Reykir No. 2 is from
Hornahver, which is situated to the south of the church, and Reykir No. 3 from
Hœjarlaug; the latter is to the east of the church. These three springs can be
distinguished on the illustration (Plate 11,/)), by the vapour which rises, condensed

9 187

into a white mist, from the hot water of the springs. In the illustration, which is
taken from the north, the swimming-bath is seen farthest away, Hornahver in the
middle, and Bæjarlaug in the foreground. The farm is not shown in the plioto-
graph, as it lies nearer and more to the right. The picturesque mountains to the
south-west, Mœlifellslinji'ikur (and others) are invisible also, as they were enveloped
in mist. We also tested the gases, whilst staying at this spot, from two more
distant springs. Reijkir No. 4 is from Fosshver, a little spring near Ihe beautiful
waterfall Reijkjafoss, two kilometres to the north of Reykir. Here hot water gushes
up through rifts in the rocky conglomerate on the eastern bank of Svartâ. The
water has a temperature of (Sir, and there are very active gaseous exhalations.
Reykir No. 5 is from Skidastadalaug, situated on the other side of Svarta, about a
kilometre to the west of Reykir ; hot water issues from three places here at a tem-
perature of 67" to OS . There is a considerable volume of water. The peculiarity
of this spring is that there are apparently no gaseous exhalations from the spring
itself But gases are emitted through a little pool 1 ni. west of the most southerly
spring. The temperature in this pool was 17.3" C; at the same time the tempera-
ture of the air was only 4" C. The sample gas which was examined comes from
this place.

A fact which characterises all the springs explored at Reykir is that the
water shows a weak alkaline reaction. The spring water also contains chlorides
and carbonates, and sulphates to some small extent.

Hveravellir.

Hveravellir is situated in a hollow by the northern border of the great field
of lava called Kjalhraiin. According to the altitude taken by the barometer, lire
place where we pitched our tent was 635 m. over sea-level; fjoBv. Thoroddsen
made it 632 m., very near to our estimate.

Among previous descriptions of the springs at Hveravellir, the following are
noteworthy: — '"Reise gennem Island", vol. H, pp. 637 — 639, by Eggert Olafsson
and Bjarni Palsson, 1752 ; "Iceland, the Journal of a Residence in that Island during
the years 1SU and 1815", vol. H, pp. 203-209, by E. Henderson.

But the most exhaustive description of the springs at Hveravellir is by pOR-
VALDUR Thoroddsen ', who stayed at Hveravellir from the 24th to the 26th August 1888,
made a map of the neighbouring spring district, and enumerated the most impor-
tant springs. Apart from the more detailed examination of the composition of the
gases, our efforts in this locality were chiefly confined to ascertain what changes
the springs had undergone since Thoroddsen explored them in 1888. As a basis
for this investigation, it is necessary to use Thoroddsen's map, which is therefore
reproduced here (Fig. 3).

The springs are situated on two dome-shaped silicious sinters. The sinter to
the north-west is the less prominent, and most of the springs are insignificant in

' Ymer, 1889, p. 49; and Geogr. Tidsskrift 10, 2li, 1889—1890.

D. K D. ViJensk. SelsU. Skr., 7. IliL-klie, n:iturvidensk. og niathem. Afil. VIM. 4. 25

188

The hot Springs

HVERAVELLIR,

s U H V E Y K n IN I S 8 8 l( Y

|). Thoroddsf.n

I ' I

300 Feet (DaniM.

+*» *\ Lava

\l, I Silicious
-^^-^ Sinter

x:Æ,H't;^'^-'-; Gravel and sand ® © o o Ilot Springs

igSgg Grass xkkx Mud and sulphur Springs

V\g. 3.

189

comparison lo those on the south-easterly dome. In order to identify each parti-
cular spring, we measured with a line the distances hetween the s])rings on the
north-western dome. The position of the springs in the south-eastern group was
arrived al hy measuring the distance from a given hase. In making this survey
we used a une and optical square. On the basis of these measurements I have
made the accompanying map, which shows the relative distances of the springs in
the two groups (Fig. 4j. The relative position of the two groups, and the hearings,

. N /

27 a

CJ_, Oshiirholl
Blnhiyr

^ ;

Tenl ;

015

•I -- Fannhrrr

^ , Pjj^'Brœàrahverir

SS ^ m
I

Gainli
.<!ro/:l,i;r

.20

}?2
9-21

-If)

*26

0 in ZO 30 'fO 50 60 10 80 90 WO metres

Fig. 4.

are taken from Thoroddsen's map, as these were not ascertained by direct obser-
vation. On comparing this map wilh Thoroddsen's, there are several points of
disagreement, both in the relative position of the springs and in the distances
between them.

These deviations, which can hardly be caused by changes in the position of
the springs, but must naturally be put down to the inaccuracy of the maps, are
nevertheless not of such a nature, as to cause doubt as to the identity of the
respective springs. On the other hand, if we compare Thoroddsen's description of
each particular spring with our observations, they will be found to be, in all the

190 12

main points, in agreement; in several places, however, there are insignificant dis-
agreements which show that the springs have undergone some change since 1888.
In the following remarks concerning the individual springs, particular attention
has been paid to these changes, and I must refer those who desire more detailed
information as to the external characteristics and appearance of the s])rings, to the
previously mentioned treatise by Thoroddsen in the Swedish periodical "Ymer".

No. 1 has a temperature of 11" C, instead of 64"^ according to {>. Thoroddsen.
In this spring the temperature is dependent on the place where the measurement
is taken. On the surface at several places it was only 64°, so that it is quite pos-
sible that the great difference in the records of temperature can be explained by
the fact tliat each record refers to a different place in the spring. The highest
temperature we found in that spring was 77°. Nr. 5 is a mud spring which throws
mud incessantly to a height of 1 m. The temperature was 95°. This spring seems
to be more active than in 1888, whereas the small mud holes No. 3 have dis-
appeared from the surface. Nevertheless feeble exhalations of steam through cracks
in the surface, indicate that the activity of the spring is continuing deep down,
though probably with diminished vigour. From No. 2 we took some sample
gases, Hveravellir No. 2.

The springs Nos. 4- S can now practically be reckoned as extinct springs, at
least they remained quite inactive as long as we were at Hveravellir. No. 9 is still
an active spring, although its energy seems to be declining. No. 10 has also under-
gone some change; in 1888 it consisted of three holes; of these one has disappeared,
probably the most northerly. The most southerly hole is the most active, and it has
periodic eruptions, during which the water is thrown to the height of about 1 ft. (3 dm.).
In 1888 the eruptions were more frequent, and the water was then 90°— 95°, now
it is only 84°. Around the hole in the basin of the spring, through which the
gases are emitted, there was a yellow border of sulphur. We took sample gases
from the north-western hole, in which the temperature was 77°, — Hveravellir No. 10.
No. 11 has far less frequent eruptions now than in 1888; its temperature is .81°,
and 91° during an eruption. No. 12: the basin is generally quite dry, but occa-
sionally it is filled with hot water, accompanied with weak gaseous emissions.
The temperature was 86°, but on another occasion it was only 56° (f>. Thoroddsen
65°). No. 13. Eyvindarhver, seems to be unchanged, temperature 87°. Oskiirholl
(the roaring hill), which seemed in 188S to have become defunct, has now resumed
its steam exhalations, accompanied by an ear-splitting din. The steam is ejected
with such power, that even in a strong wind, a column of steam rises perpendi-
cularly for at least a metre's height (Plate 111). The steam exhalations have perio-
dical maxima and minima. The temperature is 91°. Blàhver is unchanged, the
surface temperature is the same as in 1888, viz. 82° on the east side of the basin,
and 76° on the west. Sample Hveravellir No. 27 is from this spring. Springs
Nos. 14 and 15 have about the same temperature now as in 1888, viz. 81" and 64°,
as compared to 82° and 67°, respectively; but the exhalations have become much

13 191

less. No. 15 gave no visible exhalations whilst wc were at the springs. No. 16 has
developed into an extremely beanliful spring, with a regular-shaped eone of
creaniish-yellow silicious sinter (Plate IV'). In other respects this spring does nol
seem to have changed particularly during the last 18 years ; there are now fairly
strong gaseous exhalations, and the temperature is 93.5° (previously 89°). On
account of the picturesque appearance of this spring, we have called it Fagrihver
(the beautiful spring). From Fagrihver we gathered the gas Hveravellir No. 16.
Nos. 17 and 18, Brœdrahverir, are still the most active springs in this neighbourhood,
although they do not eject the water quite so high as previously. According to
[\ Thoroddsen's desci-iption, thej' threw the water to a height of 7 — 10 feet, in 1888;
in 1906 we estimated the height of the column at 1.5 m. In No. 17 the thermo-
meter showed 81°, and in No. 18 84°. Gamli Sirokkur is now quite extinct; the
temperature of the water in the basin was 27°, as against 37° in 1888. Nos. 19
and 20 are only slightly altered. Their temperature was 85° and 57°. In No. 19
there were no exhalations, and in No. 20 they were very slight. No. 21 is a spring
which gushes continuously and actively; we measured its temperature twice; the
first time it was 90", but the second time it was only 72°. This can partly be
explained by the theory that this spring, like most of the other springs at Hvera-
vellir, is periodic; but as there is a stream running near by, which to some extent
mixes its waters with the waters of the spring (No. 21), the temperature of the
latter must be largely dependent on the volume of cold water which flows from
the stream into the spring. It is therefore not impossible that the difference between
the two measurements of the temperature can be partly accounted for by this fact.

Besides the springs already referred to, which have all been mentioned and
numbered by {>. Thoroddsen, I append a brief description of the hot springs at
this ])lace which have not been dealt with by p. Thoroddsen.

No. 22 is a basin of considerable size to the south of No. 21, with a temperature
of 75°. In the water-course east of No. 21 are the two springs which we have
marked Nos. 23 and 24. No. 23 is a little cavity in the silicious sinter, through
which hot water is ejected with considerable force. No. 24, which is situated by
the northern side of the large dome of silicious sinter, covers a large surface.
Vapours issue with such force from the edge of the sinter that the water in the
basin of the spring is kept continually rippling. The temperature is 95°.

Nos. 25 and 26 are two pools situated side by side a little to the north-west
of No. 11. Both these pools are filled with clear water, without any silicious
deposits; as to outward appearance they therefore much resemble No. 1. There
were active exhalations in both these springs. From No. 25, in which the tempera-
ture was 81°, we took specimen gases, Hveravellir No. 25; the temperature of
No. 26 was 89°.

The foregoing comparison of the conditions of the springs in 1888 and 1906
seems to |)oint out that the thermal activity at Hveravellir was less during our visit,
than when [>. Thoroddsen explored them, particularly the springs on the upper

192 14

dome, which are now both fewer and less prominent lliaii in IScSS. On the lower
dome tlie thermal activity has also on the whole declined. There are, however,
some exceptions, the most conspicuous being Oskurholl, which has now resumed
ils resonant exhalations of vapour, well-known from Oi.afsson's and Henderson's
descriptions. Amongst other springs which seems to have increased in force since
1888, Nos. 16, 23 and 24 are noteworthy. It would of course be premature to con-
clude from the preceding observations, that the thermal activity at Hveravellir is
in a continual state of decline. Many of the changes noted can be traced to more
accidental grounds. Precipitation and other meteorological conditions have doubt-
less great influence on the springs, and that is at least the most plausible explana-
tion of Öskurhöll's changeability.

Hut the matter presents another aspect, when one compares the springs on
the lower and upper domes of silicious sinter; for one must then suppose that the
question of meteorological influences is essentially eliminated. The accompanying
observations show with considerable certainty that the activity of the springs on
the upper dome has decreased appreciably more than on the lower dome. This
is in agreement with previous observations from other places, and shows that in
general hot springs have a tendency to find the lowest level, — a result which
would be reached on purely physical considerations.

In the lava-lield Kjalhraun to the south-east of the above-mentioned springs,
there are considerable thermal exhalations. These exhalations are chiefly grouped
about an imaginary line from Hveravellir, in a southerly direction, about 43° to
the east. Curiously enough, Kerlingarfjöll lies in the same line, if it be produced.
We examined in two places the gases which thus streamed out through rifts in the
lava. Of these, Kjalhraun No. 1 was takeii about 110 m. south-east of the most
south-easterly dome of silicious sinter. The exhalations, of which the temperature
was 87 , produced a whistling sound as they were emitted from the holes in
the lava.

Kjalhraun No. 2 was taken up in the lava about 1 kilometre south-east of
Hveravellir. The temperature of the exhalations was 88°.

Our visit to Hveravellir extended over 4 days. On the 26th. July, we left
Hveravellir, and pitched our tent at Grànunes, whence we made excursions^ to the
springs at Kerlingarfjöll. It was originally our intention to camp west of Askarf)s-
fjall, just to the north of Kerlingarfjöll, but as the early part of the summer of
1906 was unusually cold in Iceland, there was not sufficient pasture at that place
for the horses during our stay. We were compelled therefore to choose Granuncs
as our camping-ground, although it was at least three limes as far away from the
springs. The double journey between Grànunes and the springs took more than
6 hours, and moreover we had to make a difficult crossing over the river Jökulkuisl.
We stayed at Grànunes for 6 days, but on account of unfavourable weather we could
only make two excursions to Kerlingarfjöll, viz. on the 28th. and 31sl. July 1906.

15 193

The hot springs at KerliugarfjoU.

The springs at Kerlingarfjöll are, in spite of their great number, homogeneous
pools, with a strong odour of sulphuretted hydrogen, and with turbid water, which
is kept continually in agitation, as if boiling, on account of ils high temperature
and the active exhalation of gases.

On account of the high altitude of the place (940 m. and more), all the ravines
and hollows were filled with snow whilst we were at Kerlingarfjöll, except where
the warmth of the springs had melted the snow. The springs are engaged in a con-
tinual struggle for the mastery with the snow, and in this way the most remarkable
snow-figures are formed. The snow cannot remain in the immediate neighbourhood
of the springs, not being able to resist the warmth emitted by them, but a little
farther away we saw in several places large steep walls of snow, over 10 m. high.

During the winter, when the cold is at its greatest, these snow walls can
advance nearer to the springs and perhaps embrace them entirely; but by the
summer the heat from the springs has obtained the upper hand, and the snow
has to withdraw.

Under these conditions, the snow does not so readily melt on the surface as
near the earth, which receives heat from the springs, and the masses of snow thus
undermined break off (Plate V), and large pieces of snow are precipitated towards
the springs. We saw several steep, isolated masses of snow, from 6 to 10 m. high,
which had in this way become detached from the rest, and which, on account of
the sloping ground, glided slowly down towards the springs. At other places, we
saw the misty vapours rise from the middle of a large expanse of snow. These
vapours evidently came from smaller isolated hot springs, which had not yet suc-
ceeded in getting rid of their covering of snow, and had therefore to let a small
hole suffice as an outlet for the vapours up through the snow.

The hot springs which we visited at Kerlingarfjöll are all to be found in a
large valley, almost in the shape of a right angle, the sides of which are intersected
by a great number of smaller valleys or ravines. The whole of the spring district,
which is called by the one name Hueradalir, falls naturally into three divisions,
viz. Vestur-Hucradalir (Plate V), to the west, nearest to the outlet of the valley,
Mià-Hveradalir (Plate VI), the middle part of the valley, where it turns to the east,
and Austur-Hveradalir, farthest in the valley, towards the east.

From Veslur-Hueradalir one can see some of the springs in Miö-Hveradalir,
but on account of the bend in the valley toward the east, MiiVHveradalir seems
to be the end of the valley. Not one of the springs in Austur-Hveradalir can be
seen until one has come to Miô-Hveradalir, and the majority of them are not to
be seen before one is quite close to them.

The springs in Hveradalir are mostly found in the sides and at the bottom
of the small ravines. An excei)tion is found in a very large spring situated high up

194 16

on the large gravel ridge which separates Austur-Hveradalir from Miö-Hveradalir.
As this spring is visible from Miô-Hveradalir, il can serve as a guide to anyone
seeking the hot springs in Austur-Hveradalir.

The time we had for our stay at the hot springs being very limited, and a
great amount of time being spent in collecting specimens of the gases, we had to
content ourselves with a rapid examination of the remaining springs. We were
able, however, to substantiate that the springs resemble each other strongly. We
did not see any mud springs or mud volcanoes here, with thick mud, of which there
are so many examples at Myvaln, Hengill and Krisiwik; where one would expect
to lind such mud springs, the water was only muddy on account of the deposit
of small particles. The great rainfall at Kerlingarfjöll has the effect of adding so
much water to the springs, that the small particles produced by the action of the
springs, can be continually conveyed away by the water. The streams, which are
found in the small ravines, and which eventually unite into a river, Askardsd,
which runs through the main valley, are greyish-white from the particles which
the water carries from the springs. Askarösä bears away proportionally more sus-
pended substances than the other glacier rivers.

The hot springs in Vestur-Hveradalir and Miö-Hveradalir have, on the whole,
a greater volume of water than the springs in Austur-Hveradalir, which is natur-
ally to be attributed to the higher altitude of the latter. In Austur-Hveradalir
there are even a considerable number of solfataras with sulphur deposits, but as
JoHNSTRUP has shown, the deposit of sulphur in solfataras only takes place when
the soil is sufficiently dry and porous to permit the mixture of the atmosphere
with the gases of the springs, under the surface of the earth.

With regard to the individual springs, 1 will content myself with describing
one spring in Austur-Hveradalir, which is distinguished from all the other springs
we saw in this place, by its activity and outward appearance. This spring, which
is situated close to the stream running through the main valley, is a steam spring
of the same kind as Öskiirholl^ at Hveravellir, only it is still more powerful.
Vapour and gases are emitted with indescribable force through a little hole in the
rocky ground, and the emissions of vapour are accompanied by a deafening noise.
When one considers that a large extent of the valley around the actual spring is
filled with mist, which comes mostly from the vapour of this spring, one can
form some slight idea of the tremendous amount of steam emitted by the spring.
We called this spring Öskrandi (the Bellower). (Plate Vll, a.)

The specimens of gases collected at Kerlingarfjöll were as follows : Kerlinqar-
fjöll No. 1 and 2, from the same ravine in Vestur-Hveradalir, to the west of Askarôsâ,
No. 1 nearer to Askarôsâ, No. 2 higher up in the ravine. Kerlingarfjöll No. 3 comes
from a large spring reservoir in Miô-Hveradalir. Kerlingarfjöll No. A is from a little
spring in Austur-Hveradalir, near Öskrandi. Altitudes: Vestur-Hveradalir 945 m.;
Miö-Hveradalir 980 m.; and Öskrandi lüüU m.

17 195

Grafarbakkahverir.

We stayed here from the 4th. to the 7lh. August 1906. [>. Thoroddsen, who
visited Ihese springs in the summer of 1888, has described them in "Geografisk
Tidsskrift" '. The elevation of the springs is 60 m. above sea-level. The most
important springs are situated on a little narrow eminence on Litla Laxd's right
(northern) bank, (Plate VII, fc). Farthest to the north there are two fountain-springs or
geysers; the one towards the south spouts highest, about 1.7 m., while the northern
one throws a column of water only 0.7 ni. high, (Plate VIII, a). In 1888 the reverse
was the case; according to p. Thoroddsens statement the northern spring then
spouted higher (4 ft. ; the other 2 ft.). In both of these springs the temperature of
the water between the eruptions was 95 (p. Th. 97°). But during the eruptions
the temperature was 99.3 in the northern spring, and 98.4° in the southern.

With regard to the frequency of the eruptions I refer the reader to Part III,
Table II — III. About midway between the eruptions a large quantity of boiling
water is emitted from a fissure 0.4 m. long.

From this spring, which we named Kloß, we took the sample gas Grafar-
bakki No. 1.

Bàsahuerir is the name of two deep hot-water basins, surrounded by sod.
There is very little gas emitted from these springs ; the depth of the water was
about 3 m. The surface temperature was, in the northern basin 95°, and in the
southern, 91.5°; but at the bottom, the temperature was 96,7° and 93.8° respectively.
To the extreme south-west, close to the right bank of Litla Laxd, is Vaflnuilahver,
with a regular-shaped basin in which the water is in a state of continual agitation.
The surface temperature was 98.4° (f . Th. 96°); at the bottom, 99.4°.

The same series of springs is continued on the opposite bank of Litla Lax:i ;
close to the river there are two springs, of which the larger, like Klofi, rises out
of the rocky ground, through a fissure 0.4 m. long. We obtained the sample
Grafarbakki No. 2 from this spring. A little farther on in the same direction, and
higher up on the hill on which the farm Grafarbakki is situated, is a large boiling
spring. The water from this spring is used by the inhabitants of Grafarbakki for
drinking purposes.

Smaller groups of springs can be seen still farther away in a south-westerly
direction towards the farm Graf. We only visited the nearest of these groups,
which lies on the left side of Litla Laxa, to the west of the above mentioned hill.
The springs here are for the most part insignificant pools with gaseous exhala-
tions. The gas sample Grafarbakki No. 3 comes from the most northerly spring
in this group.

In all the springs examined here, the water is alkaline and contains chlorides.
In the two Bdsahuerir, there are also traces of sulphates in the spring water. The
gases in each case, showed positive reaction on being tested for sulphuretted hydro-

' Geogr. Tidsslir. 10, 18, 1889—90.

D. K. D. VIdensk. Selsk.Skr.,7. Række, nuturvlüensk. ng jiuilhem. Afd. Vllf. 4. 26

196 18

gen and carbon dioxide. The stones and pieces of rock which were around the
springs, and which come in contact with the spring water, were covered with a
thin shell of silicioussinter.

Laugarasshyerir.

The farm Laugards is situated on an elevated ridge 67 m. above sea-level.
A little to the west of the ridge, probably 50 m. above sea-level, most of the hot
springs are grouped together within a small space. The most important springs,
taken from north to south, are the following: — pvottahver, 96\ sample Laiigaràs
No. 1 ; Draugalwer, 100" and Sudiilmer, 98.5°, from which the sample Laugards
No. 2 is taken.

Down by the river Hvi'ta, about 200 m. to the south of the springs, there are
also some smaller hot springs. The specimen Laiigaràs Nr. 3 is taken from the
most easterly spring of this group. The spring water in the above mentioned springs
is alkaline and contains chlorides and carbonates with traces of sulphates. In the
gases were found traces of sulphuretted hydrogen, but no carbon dioxide. There
were much smaller deposits of silicious sinter on the stones around the springs
here than at Grafarbakki.

With regard to their outward appearance, these springs remind one very
much of the springs at Reykir and Grafarbakki, and many plants uncommon in
Iceland thrive exceedingly well in the warm soil around them. But the great heat
of the water hinders the growth of plants, however, in such close proximity to the
springs as is the case at Reykir in Skagafjörour.

We remained three days at Laugaras, from the 8th. to 11th. August 1906.

The hot springs at Reykjafoss in Ölfns. — Ölfushverir.

We spent from the 12th. to the 16th. August here. These springs are by the
highway, and have therefore been more often visited than any other Icelandic
springs, with the exception of those at Stori Geysir. A good account of their topo-
graphy and history is given in l^. Thoroddsen's description in the "Geografisk
Tidsskrift"'.

The best known spring at this place is Litli Geysir which has formerly
been a very strongly spouting-spring. When R. Bunsen visited Litli Geysir in 1846,
it spouted regularly at even intervals; but it has now quite ceased spouting. The
largest geyser at present is Grijla or Gnjta (Plate Vlll, b); it is situated 1km. to the
north of Reykjafoss. Gryla emits steam for a short period after an eruption, which
is quite unusual with Icelandic springs.

Of the specimens of gases we examined in this spring district, there are 3 from
Hveragerôi, (Plate IX, a), to the west of Reykjafoss (25 m. over sea-level), viz. Reykja-
foss No. 1, from a basin with clear alkaline water, which contained chlorides and

1 Geografisli Tidsskrift 17, 98, 1903-1904.

19 197

traces of sulphates. This spring lies to the extreme south of the alkaline springs
here, only 2 m. from the spring examined in 1904 as "Reykjafoss Nr. I"' which
seems to be extinct, at least there are no further exhalations. Reykjafoss No. 2 and S
come from two small mud pools in Hverageröi, to the south-west. These springs,
containing sulphui'etted hydrogen, naturally gave an acid reaction. The fourth
sample of gases, Reykjafoss No. 4, was taken from a little hot spring to the east ol
Varmd, just below the neighbouring waterfall (Reykjafoss).

The warm springs around Reykjafoss really constitute the southern part of a
larger spring district which stretches towards the north with varying intervals of
space, to the east of the highest point of the mountain Henyill. In this district
there are solfataras, mud pools, clear, alkaline water basins and geysers, so that
nearly all the more general kinds of springs in Iceland are represented here.

Apart from the springs around Reykjafoss, we were only able to examine the
most northerly groups of springs in this district. These are named : —

Henglahverir.

Our sojourn at these springs lasted from the 17th. to the 20th. August 1906.

They are situated on the eastern slope of the mountain Hengill, where a large
number of, for the most part, very strong hot springs are in evidence, collected in
several separate groups. The distances between the groups are greatest in the
direction from north to south; it is in some cases almost 1 km. On the other
hand, the differences in their elevation are proportionately much less, in that they
are all situated at the place where the slope of the mountain towards pingvalla-
vatn lessens. It appears as if the hot springs here resort preferably to depressions
in the ground. The southern groups go under the name of Olvisuatnslaugar, while
the northern are called Nesjauallalaugar. On the whole, the thermal activity in
Hengill is at least as great as at any other of the places we have visited, with
perhaps the exception of Kerlingarfjöll. In appearance, these hot springs most
resemble the springs at Myvatn and on Kerlingarljöll, in as much as they are
either solfataras or mud springs.

On account of the great number of these springs, I must refrain from a
detailed description of them, though they are in many respects highly interesting,
and content myself with a summary account of the most important groups.

To the extreme south there is an isolated mud pool in the centre of a grass
plot. One cannot see the spring itself until one is close to it, as it gives off, in
contrast to most of the other hot springs, very little steam. On the other hand,
one can hear at a distance of 200 m. the rippling sound made by the large bubbles
of the gases forcing themselves up through the mud, which is of a pulpy nature.
Each bubble is from 1 to 2 litres in size, and when it emerges from the surface
and the mud closes in again this peculiar sound is emitted. This mud pool seems

' K. Prytz og Th. Thorkelsson loc. cit. p. 325.

26*

198 20

to have been in existence only for a short lime. A little to the north of this spring,
and higher up on the mountain slope, there is a small group of springs, which, on
account of its dome-shaped deposit of silica, reminds one to some extent of the
hot springs at Hveravellir.

Farther to the north, and on about the same level as the mud pool previously
mentioned, is a rather large group of springs consisting of mud pools and solfataras.
The springs are situated around a powerful steam volcano, which, with an ear-
splitting report, throws up a strong column of steam. From this group we look
two gas samples: Hengill No. 1 and Hengill No. 2. No. Î is from a spring to the
south of the steam volcano. The spring water, which had an acid reaction, and
contained sulphates to a considerable extent, but no chlorides, had a yellowish
tint on account of deposited particles of the same colour. No. 2 comes from a
little spring immediately to the north of the steam volcano.

The nearest group of springs to the north, is situated at a much greater alti-
tude. The distance between these groups is presumably about 600 or 700 m. In
the group which is seen to the left in the picture (Plate X), there are several solfa-
taras and mud pools, but the most peculiar is perhaps a spring with a temperature
of 23.3°, which lies just to the north of the group. This spring contains a large
volume of water, which has deposited a yellowish-white layer, about 4 or 5 cm.
thick, in its bed. This layer consists chiefly of precipitated sulphur, which, it
follows, the spring water must contain. How this sulphur is produced cannot al
present be decided; at any rate it does not seem probable thai it has been occasioned
by the imperfect combustion of sulphuretted hydrogen in the atmosphere. John-
STRiip's ' theory on the formation of sulphur in Iceland cannot therefore be applied
to this case, even though it seems in most other places to give the most feasible
explanation of the formation of sulphur around the solfataras.

In a north-eastern direction from the last-mentioned group of springs, there
is another large gi'oup situated directly north of a high grass bank. This group,
■which is seen in the foreground lo the right of the illustration (Plate X), was on a
level with the site of our tent, which was, according to the elevation we took,
300 m. above sea-level. At this place there are two large mud volcanoes, which
throw up mud and water incessantly to a height of about half a metre (Plate IX, b).
The specimen Hengill No. 3 is taken from a little spring just lo the north of the
mud volcano shown in the illustration.

Some distance north of the groups of springs already mentioned, there are
yet three more groups. Of these the one to the extreme south-east consists almost
exclusively of solfataras (Plate XI). In the middle group, which is to be seen in
the background of the photograph, (Plate XII), we collected the specimen Hengill
Nr. 4. It seems that the thermal activity around this group is increasing in extent.
For instance, we noticed that the grass upon a little plot which in our opinion
must recently have been covered with grass, had mostly been destroyed by the

' loc. cit.

21 199

heat. Nearest to the springs tlie remnants of vegetation were (|uite black, farther
away they were whitish, and finally yellowish, as a transition to the natural green
colour. On the whole the terrestrial heat is probably on the increase in the hot
springs here. This is confirmed, amongst other things, by the fact that in the
group to the extreme north-west, there is a large mud volcano, wliich appears to
have come recently into existence. This mud volcano (Plate XII) is about 5 m. in
diameter, and we estimated its depth, reckoned from the edge of the spring down
to the surface of the mud, at 2 m. The mud is continually thrown up to the
level of the edge of the basin, that is, about 2 m. high. About 10 or 12 m. south
of the mud volcano, we saw a peculiar little spring which also appears to be quite
recent. As the illustration shows (Plate XIII) the spring has piled up the thick
mud around its mouth, and in that way a sharp-pointed cone has been raised; this
is on account of the mud indurating as soon as it is thrown from the outlet of the
spring, and therefore obtaining sufficient solidity to stand upright in a conical form.

II.

The methods employed in the experimental work.

1. Testing the Radioactivity.

The investigation of the radioactivity of the hot springs comes under two
heads, viz. : testing the radioactive emanations contained in the gases from the
springs, and the examination of the sediment and mud taken from them, with a
view to determining the radioactive substances they may contain.

The apparatus which I have employed to gauge the radioactive emanation,
is reproduced in the accompanying outline drawing, (Fig. 5). The apparatus con-
sists of four parts: the electroscope (E), the ionisation chamber (/), the battery (B),
and a reading microscope (not shown in the illustration).

The electroscope (/i) differs from an Elster Geitel electrometer in that it has
only one aluminium leaf, and that the electroscope vessel is entirely of brass. In
order to be able to observe the leaf, the electroscope vessel is provided with two
circular windows, 15 mm. in diameter. The window in the front of the vessel is
closed by a plane sheet of glass, through which the charged leaf may be observed,
while the leaf receives the light necessary to the observation through the window-
on the back side of the vessel, this window consisting of a sheet of opaque glass.
The rod (g), which holds the aluminium leaf, passes airtight through the amber cork,
and its lower end is made to screw on to a brass cylinder (A) 12 cm. high and
2 cm. in diameter. This cylinder is enclosed in the ionisation chamber, — a sheet

200

metal vessel of the same shape, 22 cm. high and 13 cm. in diameter, and provided
with two tubes (/) through which the gases to be examined are introduced. The
ionisation vessel and the inner cylinder (k) are concentrical and together form a
condenser.

When in use, the electroscope, the inner cylinder and the testing vessel are
iirmly connected by means of screw threads, but under transport these three parts
of the apparatus are detached ; a brass cover is then screwed on to the bottom of
the electroscope in order to protect the lower surface of the amber against moisture
and dust. A distinctive feature of this testing apparatus is the adjustment of the

neck of the vessel into which
the electroscope is screwed. The
ebonite ring (/) ;i) establishes a
firm connection between the
brass ring (r r) and the lid of
the vessel. For this purpose the
lid is fitted with a raised rim,
which fits hermetically into the
ebonite ring. The electroscope
is attached to the testing vessel
by means of a worm on the
inner side of the brass ring (r r).
The distance between the brass
ring and the rim (s s) is about
^/s mm., so that the electroscope
vessel is insulated from the
ionisation chamber. A thin india-
rubber ring is placed between
the outside of the brass ring
and the electroscope in order
to make the connection between
the electroscope and the ionisa-
tion chamber airtight.
The electroscope vessel and the ionisation chamber, when connected, form
the outside of a perfectly closed condenser (a Faraday case). The inside of the
condenser is represented by the aluminium leaf, the rod (g) and the cylinder (/c).
But when the connection is broken, we have in the electroscope vessel and the
ionisation chamber two separate closed condensers of which the inner surfaces are
in connection with each other.

Such a system of condensers establishes the theory that the fluctuations in
the charge of the inner system of conductors is proportionate to the changes
in the potential difference between the two outer conductors, provided that the

Fig.

23 201

potential difFerence between the inner systems and either of the outer conductors
is constant.

This can be demonstrated in the following manner.

In a closed condenser, the charge that the inner system of conductors carries
is expressed by

E = c{v,-~u,),

where c, the capacity of the condenser, and «, and i'.^ are respectively the potentials
of the inner and the outer system of conductors. In the above mentioned apparatus
the charge e, held by the inner cylinder (/c), the rod (;/) and the aluminium leaf,
can be analogically expressed by the formula: —

e = Ce{Vi—Ve) + Cb(Vi~Vb), (1)

Cc and c/, are the respective capacities of the electroscope and the ionisation
chamber, and y,, n^ and vt are the potentials of the inner cylinder, the electro-
scope vessel and the ionisation chamber respectively. Leakage from the inner
cylinder will cause a change in e, i>i, v,. and Vh and we get in the same way as before

e = Ce{v'. — v'^) + Cbiul — v'^) , (2)

when the new values of the variable quantities are marked. Subtracting (2) from
(1) we have

e-e' = c^ {(v. - v^) - (v. — «;))+ c^ {iv^ - «,,) - {v'. ~ v'^)).

Assuming that the potential ditTerence between the electroscope vessel and the rod
{g) remains constant, we have

Hence we get

e — e

{iu^-u,)-{u'-ol))

e - e' = c^ {(v-v^)- (v[~ v^ )) , (4)

which affords the required proof

Equation (4) shows that the leakage is equal to the product of the capacity
of the ionisation chamber and the change in the potential difference between the
electroscope vessel and the ionisation chamber. The leakage is, on the other hand,
independent of the electroscope capacity and of the absolute potential of the inner
cylinder.

A possible objection to the above demonstration is that the formula (1) is not
applicable because the two condensers regarded separately are not entirely closed,
but as I have shown in Phys. Zeitschr. ' the formula holds good, provided that
the electroscope and the ionisation chamber form a single closed condenser when
a conductive connection is established between them.

' Pliys. Zeitschr. 7, 834, 1906.

202 24

When the apparatus is to be used to measure radioactivily, it must be
remembered that the activity is generally proportionate to the leakage from the
inner cylinder divided by the time. Therefore in these measurements it is necessary
to record the time, as well as to measure the leakage.

It is evident from equation (4) that measurements made by means of the
testing apparatus may be executed in two different ways. In the first place by
allowing the potential difference between the electroscope vessel and the inner
cylinder to remain constant, when the amount of the leakage is obtained by
determining the potential difference between the electroscope vessel and the ionisa-
tion chamber at fixed intervals. Secondly, the rate of leakage is obtained by
determining the time that elapses before the potential difference between the inner
system of conductors and the electroscope vessel has acquired a fixed value, after
having made a given alteration in the potential difference between the electroscope
vessel and the ionisation chamber. For reasons of a practical nature I preferred
to use the latter method of observation.

We have a good criterion as to the identity of the potential differences between
the electroscope vessel and the inner system of conductors, when the deflection of
the aluminium leaf is constant.

The measurements were made in the following manner. One's first care is
to see that the potential difference between the electroscope vessel and the ionisa-
tion chamber remains constant, e. g. by connecting them with the poles of a con-
stant battery, or at any rate by connecting them with a thin copper wire, so that
the potential difference becomes zero. Then the inner system of conductors is
charged until the aluminium leaf makes a suitable deflection.

The potential difference between the aluminium leaf and the electroscope
vessel was about 300 volts in my experiments. The microscope is then adjusted
so that a clear outline of the leaf is seen in the neighbourhood of a mark in the
eye piece, — two threads crossways will serve this purpose.

The deflection of the leaf decreases gradually on account of the leakage from
the inner cylinder, and by adjusting the microscope one ensures that the edge of
the leaf can be seen moving towards the fixed mark in the eye piece.

Note is taken of the time at which the image of the edge coincides with the
mark. The potential difference between the electroscope vessel and the ionisation
chamber is altered, so that the deflection of the leaf becomes greater, and the
time at which the next coincidence of the edge of the leaf and the mark in the
eye piece takes place is also noted. Let t represent the number of seconds between
the two periods of coincidence; then the rate of leakage per second is given by

c,.

t
or

E =-- -5

25 203

when u = {v^ — v^) — i^'e^f^i) is the change in the potential difference between the
electroscope vessel and the ionisation chamber that has been produced.

The most convenient way of charging the inner system of conductors is by
means of influence. A rod provided with an insulated handle, is brought into
contact with the rod g, and a charged body, a rod of sealing wax for instance,
is brought close to the upper end of the charging rod until the leaf has made a
suitable deflection. Then the charging rod is taken off and the cover of the
electroscope vessel put on. In order to impart a sufficient charge to the inner
cylinder it is necessary that the end of the charging rod toward which tiie rod of
sealing wax is brought, be flat shaped.

In order to produce the potential difference between the electroscope vessel
and the ionisation chamber I used 10 small dry cells (Hellesen's pattern). These
were embedded in paraffin in two wooden boxes containing four and six cells
respectively. In each box the cells were connected in a series, and one pole of every
alternate cell was attached to one of the copper stoppers which formed the bottom
of the small holes in the thick ebonite plate in the lid of the box, (see Fig. 5). The
copper stoppers render the holes mercury-tight, and when the battery is to be used
the holes are filled with mercury. When the poles of the cells are to be connected
to the electroscope vessel and the ionisation chamber, the ends of the connecting
wires are placed in the mercury. In transit the holes in the ebonite plate are
emptied of their contents of mercury, and then the poles of the cells are represented
by the copper stoppers in the bottom of the holes. In this way the cells are
protected against injury by accidental overstraining. Hence the cells remained
constant during the whole journey.

Of course the connections between the testing apparatus and the battery are
arranged at the beginning of every experiment, that is to say, before the adjust-
ment of the microscope, so that one is able to make the greatest change in the
potential difference that the cells in use permit, without altering the adjustment of
the microscope. If the inner cylinder is charged positively, then the positive
terminal of the battery should be connected with the electroscope vessel.

As the change produced in the potential diflerence between two consecutive
observations depends on the rate of leakage, one must endeavour as far as pos-
sible to arrange that the intervals of time to be measured be kept within certain
limits, preferably about one minute. If the intervals are much longer, the measure-
ment takes too long, whilst on the other hand, if the interval be much shorter,
the inevitable errors will proportionally be so great as to affect seriously the
accuracy of the final results.

When the ionisation is small and the downward movement of the leaf is
correspondingly slow, one does not need to move one end of the connecting wire
farther forward than one hole in the battery case at a time; the established altera-
tion in the potential difference (ve~Vb) then amounts to about 2.9 volts, i. e. double

1). K. 1). Vidensk. Selsk. .Ski-., 7. lUekkc, natuividensU. ojj malheni. Afd. VIM. -1. 27

204 26

the E. M. F. of one cell. This is the least variation in the potential difference that
can be produced by means of the above mentioned battery boxes.

The increase in the deflection of the leaf effected by such a variation of
potential difference amounts to very nearly 3 mm., as seen in the eye piece of the
microscope. As it would easily be possible to distinguish ^^ of this, I was enabled,
according to equation (4), to detect with this testing apparatus a decrease in the
charge corresponding to 4.9x^X3^ = 1.6xl0~^ E. S. units, the capacity of
the ionisation chamber being 4.9 cm. in absolute electrostatic units.

When the ionisation is stronger, a correspondingly greater change is produced
in the potential difference (ug — Vb)- By means of the two batlery boxes I was able to
make in all ten different changes in the potential difference, viz. 2.9; 2 x 2.9; 3 x 2.9
etc. up to 10 X 2.9 volts. In my opinion a greater alteration of the potential than
29 volts is not necessary, because, if the ionisation is too intense to be measured
with sufficient accuracy by means of a potential variation of 29 volts, we are
running the risk of there being an absence of saturation current in the testing
apparatus, on account of the potential of the aluminium leaf and connecting con-
ductors being restricted. In this case it is more reliable to introduce the active
gas in smaller quantities into the ionisation chamber, and in this way avoid testing
gases too intensely ionised.

The chief advantage of the method of measurement just described is that it
is only necessary to know the small potential difference between two conductors,
i. e. the electroscope vessel and the ionisation chamber, in order to compute the
ionisation, it not being necessary to determine the high potential of the inner
system of conductors exactly. But so few cells were required in order to gauge
the small potential differences, that we could take them with us on the journey.
Hence I was enabled to use the microscope instead of the magnifying glass in
observing the aluminium leaf, the rate of leakage being measured in this case by
comparison with the E. M. F. of the small cells taken with us, instead of by means
of a scale, which would have had to be ganged every time the testing apparatus
was set up.

The observation is preferably made by means of the microscope than by
means of the magnifying glass, as the measurement can be made with greater speed
without diminishing the accuracy. It is of great importance that the measurements
be made expeditiously in the study of radioactive substances, as they are generally
of an extremely changeable nature. Microscopic observations also save time, when
the discharge through slightly ionised gas is to be determined.

Although the leaf can only be seen within a very restricted potential interval
on account of the magnifying power of the microscope, the special method of
observation here employed renders it possible to use the microscope for measuring
at least as great a potential fall as a magnifying glass, i. e. much greater than can
ordinarily be measured by the microscope.

From this it is evident that this method of observation is equally suitable for

27 205

measuring slight and strong ionisation, since it combines the advantages of the
ordinary microscope observation in measuring slight ionisation, with the superiority
of the magnifying glass in measuring strong ionisation. Thus we can dispense with
the auxiliary condensers for varying the sensitiveness of the testing apparatus.

The change in the deflection of the aluminium leaf is observed by the ordi-
nary methods of observation, but on account of the change in the position of the
leaf, the capacity of the electroscope is also slightly altered. By my method of
observation, however, the capacity of the electroscope remains quite unaltered
throughout a series of observations, because the deflection of the leaf is identical at
every observation.

Owing to the special arrangement of the electroscope and the ionisation
chamber shown in Fig. 5, the measurements are quite independent of the moisture
of the atmosphere. For the only place where the insulation may be defective on
account of moisture is the surface of the amber stopper, and owing to the arrange-
ment of the apparatus, this may easily be dried by means of metallic sodium.
The electroscope vessel is provided with a side tube, in which the sodium is put
when the upper surface of the amber is to be dried. The lower surface of the
stopper is most convenientl}' dried by separating the electroscope vessel from the
ionisation chamber, and closing the bottom of the vessel by the previously men-
tioned cover, in which a small piece of sodium is placed beforehand. On account
of the small space to which the action of the sodium is confined the surface of
the amber is quite dry after a few minutes.

In the first measurements of radioactivity on our journey, we noticed some
remarkable anomalies in the results, but as all the testings w'ere carried out in
a tent, where considerable variations in the temperature are liable lo occur, we
soon perceived that these anomalies were due to air currents set up by the varia-
tions of the temperature in the electroscope vessel, the deflection of the mobile
aluminium leaf being altered by the slightest movement of the air in the electro-
scope. In order to gel rid of these disturbances, the electroscope was enveloped
in a coating of thick pasteboard, covered with tin-foil. This isolation of the
electroscope against heat proved to be sufficient to uullify the effect of the changes
in the temperature.

When the emanation in a gas was to be mea.sured by means of the above
described apparatus, I first determined the amount of leakage through ordinary
atmospheric air, then a measured quantity of the gas to be examined was intro-
duced into the ionisation chamber. The gas was filtered through a compressed
plug of cotton wool which retained the disintegration products present in the
radium emanation (Ra A, Ra B, Ra C).

The time of the introduction of the radioactive gas into the ionisation vessel
was noted. Then the leakage was tested several times in the course of an hour,
and from these measurements the amount of radium emanation introduced with
the active gas into the ionisation chamber was calculated.

27*

206 28

The calculations were carried out in the following manner: On account of the
special application of the dry cells, ii is, in the following equation,

£ = 'f , (5)

always equal to 2.9n volts, or "^ -^ abs. electrostatic units where n is a whole number
within the limits 1 to 10.

The equation (5) may be written thus,

_ 2.9ct 10000 _ 2.9 Cb ,

^"■3000000^ [M 3000000 "■ ^'

• n '

The factor — "^ is constant, therefore instead of calculating E, I confined myself

30Ü0000 loOüO

to calculating its proportional a -- — jy . In this manner the calculations are

restricted to the determination of the reciprocal value of ^ in a table of reciprocals.
Then the values of a are corrected by subtracting the value of a corresponding to
the natural leakage in atmospheric air. Now the corrected values of a are marked
out as ordinales on millimeter squared paper, while the abscissae represent the
time reckoned from the introduction of the active gas into the ionisation chamber.
Through the points marked, an even curve is drawn, showing how a increases
immediately after the active gas is introduced into the ionisation vessel.

In the case of radium emanation, the curve has a characteristic shape, so
that we are able from the form of the curve to decide whether the ionisation is
due to radium emanation or not. Of course, if the curve of a is to be taken as a
criterion as to whether the gas does or does not contain radioactive emanations
other than radium emanation, it is necessary to take care that the disintegration
products of the radium emanation are not carried along with the gas into the
ionisation chamber, as they will, on account of their ionising power, alter the
curve perceptibly. It is well known that the increase of ionisation immediately
after the introduction of the active gas, is due simply to the production of these
substances from radium emanation.

If the ionisation due to the emanation or its proportional a, — which amounts
to the same, — is to be used as a measure of the amount of radium emanation,
then it is necessary to provide for a saturation current when the testings of leakage
are carried out; if not, the ionisation is not proportional to the leakage. In the
second place it must be remembered that the ionisation is a function of time.
Therefore it is only on condition that the ionisation is always tested at equal periods
after the introduction of the gas in question into the ionisation vessel, that it may
be depended upon to determine the amount of radium emanation in the gas.

But when, as in our case, a considerable number of experiments in very
varying circumstances have to be carried out, it is exceedingly difficult in every
experiment consistently to test the ionisation at equal periods after the introduction
of the gas into the ionisation vessel. I have therefore, as already mentioned, pre-

29 207

fened constructing an even curve showing the progress of a in the first hour, by
means of vahies of a obtained at fixed points of time. Then I have from the
curve deduced the mean values of a corresponding to 10, 20, 30, 40, 50, and 60
minutes after the active gas was introduced into the ionisation vessel. Every one
of these values of a therefore could be employed in determining the amount of
emanation in the gas. But in order still further to eliminate possible errors in the
measurements, I have, instead of using one of these six values, used their mean
value J

«m = ^ («10 + «20 + «30 + «40 + «50 + «60)

which also, as may be easily shown, is proportionate to the amount of the emana-
tion. For if the amount of emanation. A', at the above fixed points of time
produces an ionisation represented by a'^^, a^.^, a'^, etc., while another amount of

etc., we get
the relations : —

ed by the analogical quantities a^^, a^,

«30

«io "20 "^ "lo «M °M

"!o "20 "30 <w ' «M "«)

«10 + "^ ~r- «M + "^ + «^ + °'go <

«i'fl -^ "20 + «M -t <ô -t- «M + "œ <n '

By letting A be equal to a„„ the emanation is expressed in an arbitrary unit, besides
which, it is dependent on the apparatus used. Therefore it was very important
for me to find a unit for the emanation that was well defined and could be easily
reproduced, so that the results of my experiments at any time could be compared
with results of other scientists in the same domain. The simplest way out of the
difficulty would have been to make use of the unit that St. Meyer and H. Mache '
have proposed for use in expressing the radium emanation contained in spring gases.
According to their definition, the unit is the amount of emanation that by means
of its ionising power sets free per second an electrostatic unit of positive electricity
and an equal quantity of negative electricity. The emanation is calculated per
litre of spring gases.

My measurements could be easily expressed in terms corresponding to this
definition of the emanation unit. In the first few seconds after the introduction
of the gas liberated from the disintegration products of the emanation, the ionisa-
tion in the ionisation chamber is due solely to the emanation. Therefore if a,
in equation (6), is replaced by Oo, then E in the same equation is simply the
emanation expressed in the unit proposed by St. Meyer and H. Mache, or

^ = ^= 3000000 "0 = 4.73 xl0-0a„. (7)

Nevertheless I have not used this emanation unit in the compulation of my experi-
ments because I am of the opinion that the ionisation caused by the emanation
is not only dependent on the amount of the emanation, but to a certain extent is

' Phys. Zeitsclir. 6, 693, 1905.

208 30

also dependent on the form of tlie ionisation chamber. I have therefore preferred
comparing tlie emanation in the liot spring gases with the emanation evolved by
a known quantity of radium per second. In this way the unit of emanation
becomes independent of the shape of the ionisation chamber, because the known
quantity of emanation is measured in exactly the same way as that which it is
desired to determine. It is taken for granted in this, as in every other case where
measurements of emanation are to be made, that the ionisation is proportionate to
the emanation, other conditions being equal.

As the unit of radium emanation, I have adopted the amount of emanation
evolved per second by the radium in one gr. uranium in natural minerals. A similar
used by unit is Boltwood ' in his researches of some American hot springs.

In order to obtain the value of a„, in the proposed unit, I dissolved about
0.1 gr. uraninite from Joachimthal in dilute nitric acid. The solution was put
into a bottle that could be made airtight. Then the solution was freed from
emanation by boiling, and the bottle closed. The radium contained in the solu-
tion incessantly evolves emanation, which is stored up in the bottle. After standing
three or four days, the emanation evolved is completely removed from the solution
by pumping and boiling, and the emanation thus collected is introduced into the
ionisation chamber, where it is measured in the ordinary way.

According to two analyses, for which I am deeply indebted to Cand. polyt.
V. Farsöe, the uraninite used in these experiments contained 23.8 "/o uranium. If
p gr. uraninite are dissolved, the radium in the solution evolves per second 0.238 p
emanation units. On this basis, and by making proper allowance for the decay of
the emanation, the amount, q, of radium emanation in the solution at any given
time, may be calculated. Of the emanation q, the fraction aq is transformed every
second; here, the transformation coefficient a is, according to Rutherford and
SoDDY", computed at 2.16x10-''. Then with respect to the solution, the total
increase of the emanation in the infinitesimal interval dt, is given by the differ-
ential equation, ,

^1^ dt = 0.'23Hpdt— oqdt.

Hence we get by integration,

0.238/) , ,, _,,,
q = - -4- Ce "'.

I/.

By letting q = 0 when / = 0, we get the integration constant,

^ ^ _0.238p
«
Therefore,

0.238/),, „.

In this formula the transformation coefficient a = 2.16 x 10-^, e the base of the

1 Amer. Journ. Sei. IS. .S78, 1904.

- See Rutherford: Radio-activity 2. ed. 1905, p. 247.

31 209

natural logarithms, p the weight (in grams) of the uianinite employed, and / the
lime in seconds reckoned from the moment the solution was sealed up ; p and '
are found by experiment.

From the last equation we get q in the above proposed unit (per gram uranium
per second), wliile a direct measurement of (he emanation in the ionisation chamber
gives the emanation in the arbitrary unit by means of a,„. The factor ;-, which
a,,, is to be multiplied by to express the emanation in the right terms, is given by
the equation,

q — r«;n-

As a mean of two experiments I got

r = 1.347.

According to measui-ements made by Rutherford and Boltwood', natural minerals

contain 3.8 x 10~' gr. of radium per gram of uranium. Therefore the proposed

unit of emanation is produced by 3.8 x 10~' gram of radium per second. Thus

we are enabled to refer this unit to Curie and Laborde's - unit of emanation.

In the proceeding exposition I have taken it for granted that the relation

between the emanation contained in the ionisation chamber and the ionisation factor

a,„ is constant. But this only holds good when the testings are carried out at

even density of the atmosphere. A change in the density of the atmosphere causes

a corresponding change in the relation between the emanation and the ionisation

produced. If alterations in the ionisation called forth by small variations in the

atmospheric density are assumed to be proportionate to the alterations of the

densitv, I have

£-£' d — d'

where E and fî' represent the ionisation produced by the same emanation, i. c. when
the density of the air is d and d' respectively, and fj. a factor of proportionality.
Setting aside the moisture of the air, 1 refer all the measurements to the pressure
of 760 mm. mercury, and 18° C, so that d = 0.001213.

By direct measurements of a given quantity of emanation, I determined the
leakage due to the emanation, at 766 mm. pressure and 20" C, to 889 arbitrary units.
The same emanation caused the leakage to be 852, at a pressure of 618 mm. and
20° C. The density of the air at 766 mm. and 20° is d = 0.001215, and at 618 mm.
and 20° C, d' ^^ 0.000980. Then we have from the experiments mentioned,

0.001215-0.000980 _ 889 — 852
^ ÔT001215 ~" 889^

or n = 0.215. From the formula

E
E

' Amer. Journ. Sei. 22, 1, 1906..
- Comp. rend. 138, 1180, 1904.

E-E' d — d'

210 32

we get,

which wilh sufficient accuracy may be transformed into

d-d'

E =-- E

■1'+" =.-)

inasmuch as the quantity p. , , in the experiments in question, never exceeds

0.02. All the measurements of emanation are corrected according to the last formula.
After having thus determined the amount of emanation, E, introduced into the
ionisation chamber, the emanation, Ct, contained in 1 ccm. spring gas at 760 mer-
cury and 20" C. is computed by simple proportion, when the reduced volume, V, of
the gas employed in the experiment, is known.
Therefore, „

Ct -= ^,

Ct denoting the emanation contained in 1 ccm. of spring gas at the moment the
gas was inlroduced into the ionisation chamber.

Supposing that the gas has been t seconds in the collecting tube, the emana-
tion Co contained in 1 ccm. of spring gas at the time the gas was collected, is given

by Ihe formula

C, = Co e- 216x10-"'
or

Co - C,e2i«xio-«*.

When Ct and / are known, Co can be calculated by means of this formula. Of
course, the formula is not applicable except when the gas contains only radium
emanation. Cq is the emanation per gram of uranium per second contained in
1 ccm. of spring gas at the moment the gas was collected from the spring. From
the foregoing it is obvious that the ultimate determination of the emanation con-
tained in the spring gases is only to be obtained by somewhat prolonged calcula-
tions. As examples showing how these calculations are carried out, I cite here in
extenso the measurements of the emanation of two samples of Icelandic spring
gases, with the necessai'y calculations.

Reykir No. 5, Skföastaöalaug.

Sample of gas collected on 16th. August 1906 at 5 p.m. Barometer: 746 mm.
mercury. Temperature: ITC. The volume of the collecting bottle, 102.2 ccm.

The sample was introduced into the ionisation chamber on the same day at
8.30 p.m. Barometer 746mm. Air temperature 6° C.

33 211

Measurements of the ionisation:

Time.

Leiikage.
1000

Leakage due to the emanation
in the gas.

8'' 24 p. ni.

26.1

0.0

SI' 34 »

87.0

60.9

S'l 36 »

90.9

64.8

8" 40 »

102.0

75.9

8" 43 »

108.7

82.6

8'' 58 »

113.6

87.5

9'> 02 »

108.7

82.6

9'' 24 »

1163

90.2

9'' 28 »

123.5

97.4

Hence we get, by means of the curve, the values of :

\nl

10 minutes

aw = 76.5

O20 = 82.4

30 »

030 = 86.2

40 »

O40 = 89.1

50 »

oso = 92.2

aoo = 95.0

showing an average of 86.9 = a'„,.

The density of the air at 746 mm. and 6° C. is d - 0,001242. The corrected
value of a,„ is therefore

a„, = 86.9 (l +0.215^-^*^^21^^^^) = ^^'^^

The amount of emanation in question is thus

E = 86.5 X 1.347 = 116.5

while the reduced volume of the spring gas investigated is

_ 102.2 _ 736 _

1+0 00367x11 760 «o-^ ccm.

The spring gas contains therefore at the time of examination, an amount of
emanation which is expressed by : —

Q = ^ = 1.225.

Multiplying 1.225 by eS.icxio "(^ / being 12600 seconds, we obtain the amount
of emanation contained in 1 ccm. of the spring gas at tbe time of collection.
Therefore

Ci = 1.225 X e2 16 ><)o-«K 12600 = i.26 per gr. uranium per second.

I). K. l>. VUlensk. Selsk. Skr.. 7. li«kkc, niiluiviclensk oU inalheiii Af.l. VIII. 4. 28

212 34

Hveravellir No. 27, Blâhver.

Sample of gas collected on 23rd. August 1906 at 8.30 p. m. Barometer
696 mm. Temperature 37". The volume of the collecting bottle, 198.7 ccm.

The sample was introduced into the ionisation chamber on 27lh. August 1906
at 6.00 p.m. Barometer 703 mm. Air temperature 11° C.

Measurements of the ionisation:

Time.

5^50 1

p. m.

61' Ü5

6'' 06

6'' 09

6hll

6^26

61» 30

6" 31

6^48

6"' 52

(A-akage.

Leakage

due to the enuiiKilioii
in the gas.

28.0

0.0

568

540

588

560

658

630

645

617

699

671

714

686

714

686

754

726

780

752

Hence we get, by means of the curve, the values ot ^, (, :

\n)

10 minutes

01,1 = 612

020 = 656

30 »

aso = 686

40 »

040 = 715

050 = 740

Geo ■-= 763

a'm = 695

Corrected according to the density of the atmosphere

/ 1913 1150

a;„ ^- 695(1+0.215' ,213 ' ^^"'^ '

E = 702.6 X 1.347 - 946.4,

„ _ 1^98^7 649 _

^ ~ 1+0.00367x37 ^ 760 ^ ^^^-^ ccm.,

C, = ^ = 6.34.

The emanation, Cn, from the spring gas is therefore:

Cii = 6.34 X e'^"''^''-3366 -^ 13 1 pm- gj. uranium per second,
/ being 336600 seconds.

35 213

As many investigators, especially German, have employed of late the unit of
emanation in spring gas proposed by Mache and Meyer, it is important to be
able to compare this nnit directly with the one employed in these experiments.

This may be done in the following manner. According to equation (7) on
page 207 the relation between the leakage in the ionisation chamber and the ema-
nation expressed in the units of Mache and Meyer is given by

A = 4.74 X 10-ßa„.
In some experiments I made special efforts to measure the ionisation imme-
diately after the introduction of the radioactive gas into the ionisation chamber.
From these experiments I deduced

a„ = 0.6 am

consequentlv

' ' A = 2.84 X 10-6o„,.

If, in measuring rim, v ccm. is used instead of 1 litre of^the spring gas, the above
equation is transformed to

A ^2-:^i^^^^„. = 2.84x10-3^.
o V

1000

On the other hand, 1 calculated the emanation in accordance with the formula

C = \Ml""^.
I'

Hence it is clear that my unit may be transformed to the unit of Mache and Meyer

by multiplying the amount of emanation expressed in my units, by the factor

2 84
f-^fjX^O-^ - 2.11 X 10-3.

Accordingly, the emanations of the two samples quoted, expressed by the
units of Mache and Meyer, are

Reykir No. 5 2.66 x 10"^ (E. S. E.)

Hveravellir No.27 . . . 27.6 x lO^s (E. S. E.)

It was important to ascertain how far the radioactive emanation contained in
the Icelandic spring gases is due exclusively to radium, and whether the gases
contain some other radioactive emanations. I shall now mention two methods by
which I endeavoured to ascertain this point, viz. (1) by examining the ionisation
curve, which shows how the ionisation in the ionisation chamber increases during
the first hour after the introduction of the active gas; (2) by determining the coef-
ficient of decay for the emanation contained in the spring gases. A third method,
especially applicable to the investigation of rapidly changing emanations, will be
mentioned later.

If, in determining the nature of the emanation, one bases one's observations
only on the ionisation curve, great care must be taken in the filtration of the gas
before introducing it into the ionisation chamber. The slightest quantity of dis-
integration products of the emanation, escaping into the ionisation chamber with

28*

214

the emanation, will cause a perceptible alteration in the ionisation curve. On this
account this method is always a little unreliable, and I therefore laid particular
stress on the second method.

In order to determine the coefficient of the rate of decay of the emanation,
I took two samples of every spring gas to be examined, one sample about 100 ccm.,
the other about 200 ccm. As soon as possible, (after /i seconds), the 100 ccm. of the
gas were examined to ascertain the emanation contained, whilst the 200 ccm. of
the gas were examined after about four days (^2 seconds).

By means of the measurements above described, the emanation contained in
1 ccm. of the spring gas under examination, at the moment when the gas was
introduced into the testing vessel, was then calculated. Let A^ and A; represent
the emanations calculated per 1 ccm. of spring gas, while the indices /i and t^
signify the time in seconds that the testings took place after the collection of
the gas, then At is the emanation in 1 ccm. of the spring gas after having been

^1 seconds in the collecting bottle, and Ai has an ana-
logical significance. Therefore At^ is the remainder of
the emanation At after t^ — ti seconds.

In order to calculate the rate of decay («') of the
emanation by means of the two experiments, it is
necessary to suppose that the emanation decays in
accordance with a known law. By supposing that the
emanation decays according to an exponential law

1 eet

At,^ == ^,_e-«'('-'.)-

Hence 1 have

log At — log A,

Fig. G. „' _ ^AJ^ ^_J?.

■ 2 — «1

The values of the rate of decay entered in Table I are calculated in accord-
ance with this formula.

The examination of the radioactive substances in solids, i. e. mud and sedi-
ments, was done by measuring their ionising power. The apparatus for measuring
the ionisation produced by solids was, in principle, the same as that employed in
examining the emanation. The same electroscope was used, but the ionisation
vessel had different dimensions. The vessel / in Fig. 6 is 12 cm.] high and 26 cm.
in diameter. A circular, horizontal plate of zinc, Z, 16 cm. in diameter, is con-
nected by a brass rod 6 cm. in length to the rod, g, in the electroscope. The
brass rod is attached to the centre of the plate. The substance to be examined is
pulverized finely and spread in a thin layer over the bottom of the vessel, which
is easily removed from the upper part. The radium rays emitted by the substance
will then ionize the air in the testing vessel and consequently augment the leakage.

One can form an estimate of the sensitiveness of the apparatus from the fol-
lowing measurements. 1 dissolved 0.201 gram of nitrate of uranyl, {U02{N03)2^ &H2O),

In the case of inactive mud the leakage / ,,-\ was 13.9. With the active

37 215

in water, and mixed the sohition with 31 gram of dry mud powder which I had

previously proved to be quite inactive. After desiccation and pulverisation the

mud, whicli has now become active on account of the uranium contained in it, is
again examined.

mud the leakage was 153. Hence the increase in leakage was 139. Under ordinary
conditions I could perceive an increase in the leakage corresponding to , of the
natural leakage, or 1.4 of the arbitrary units before described. Hence I conclude
lliat, by means of this apparatus, it is possible to detect 0.00201 gram of nitrate of
uranyl contained in the mud sample, or, as I usually in every experiment examined
about 30 grams of the desiccated mud, I was thus able to delect radioactive sub-
stances in the sample, provided they produced the same ionising effect per gram
of the examined matter as 0.00067 gram of the nitrate of uranyl.

The nitrate of uranyl contains 47.6 "o uranium. Therefore 31.9 x 10^ gram
of uranium per gram of the mud is the smallest amount of uranium to be detected
by this method.

According to Mc Coy ' 1 gram of radium, in equilibrium with its disintegration
products, is equally as active as 3.8 x 10*" gram of uranium, while Soddy and
Mackenzie- found 1 gram of radium as active as 14.6x10" gram of uranium.
Taking the average of these measurements, and estimating the activity of radium
at 9 X 10'' times the activity of uranium, I must have been able to detect, by
means of the above described apparatus, 3.5 x 10~" gram of radium contained in
1 gram of dry mud.

According to Strutt \ and Eve and McIntosh ^ the rocks on an average contain
1.4 X 10 '2 gram of radium per gram of the mineral, i. e. ^ of what I was able
to detect.

At each of the hot spring groups investigated by us, I examined for radio-
activity 5 — 10 different samples of mud, silicious sinter and other deposits from
the hot springs, but without detecting any trace of radioactive substances. On
this account I must conclude that the amount of radium contained in the sedi-
ments, mud etc. of the hot springs examined, does not exceed 25 times the amount
of radium contained in common rocks.

2. The collection of spring gases.

The spring gases were preferably collected from springs where the gas
evolved bubbled through water or mud, because we judged thai the gas collected
here was less likely to be mixed with atmosplieric air than that collected from

■■ Phil. Mag. 11, 183, 1906.
- Phil. Mag. 14, 272, 1907.
ä Proc. Roy. Soc. 77, 472, 1906.
* Phil. Mag. U, 231, 1907.

216

==^

from vents in the dry, porous soil. In every case the method emploj'cd in eollcel-
ing spring gases was the same as that described by Travers, as shown in Fig. 7.

The gas emanating from the spring was gathered
up by the [enamelled funnel, T, and conducted
through a tin tube into the collecting bottle. The
pressure acting uj)on the gas collected in the funnel
was great enough to force the gas through the
connecting tubes and the collecting bottle. Care
was taken that the gas, after having passed through
the collecting bottle, always bubbled through water,
in order to make sure that atmospheric air could
not by any means be introduced into the collect-
ing bottle. In order to facilitate the exclusion of
atmospheric air from the collecting bottles in the
beginning of the experiment, they were filled with
water and then connected with the conducting
tubes, out of which the atmospheric air is driven
beforehand by the current of spring gas. The flow
of the water from the bottle was regulated bj'
means of stop-cocks according to the evolution of
the spring gas, so that we were sure that the pressure of the gas above the water
in the collecting bottle was never lower than the atmospheric pressure; had this
been so, it would have caused the water from the funnel to be sucked up into the
conducting tubes.

Fig. 8 A shows the kind of bottle in which the spring gas to be
examined for radioactivity was collected. Every bottle is provided
with two tubes capable of being closed airtight by means of the
stop-cocks a. I took with me on the journey 8 sets of these
bottles, each set consisting of two bottles, one containing 100 ccm.
and the other 200 ccm. The bottles were provided with etched
numbers, and before the journey they were measured by weighing
them filled with water.

As already mentioned two samples of spring gas, 100 ccm.
and 200 ccm., were collected from each hot spring investigated.
In order that the gas in the samples might be as homogeneous
as possible, the two samples were collected simultaneously by
connecting the collecting tubes parallel to the conducting tube,
by means of T-tubes, as shown in Fig. 7 F. Before closing the
stop-cocks, we took care that the spring gas, by passing slowly
through the tubes for a time, had assumed the pressure and
temperature of the surrounding air.

On closing the collecting bottles, we observed the temperature of the air in

Fig. 8.

217

the immediate vicinity of the bottles, the standing of the barometer and the
exact time.

The samples of gas for the quantitative analysis were collected in the same
way, in bottles (Fig. 8 ß) containing about 150 ccm. These bottles were of a similar
shape to those containing the gas to be examined for radioactivity, but the tubes
had no stop-cocks, being closed by melting. The samples taken to determine
inactive gases contained in the spring gas were at first collected in the sheet iron
vessel B in Fig. 9. The volume of the vessel was about 5000 ccm., and the collec-
tion of the gas was performed in the usual way. The vessel was then bi ought
to the tent, where the sulphuretted hydrogen, the carbon dioxide, the oxygt a and
hydrogen were for the most part withdrawn „

from the spring gas. The arrangement of
the apparatus is shown in Fig. 9. The
circuit P, F, M, 0, C, K consists of the Prytz
pump '- P, the collecting bottle F, the glass
tubes M, 0 and C containing respectively
peroxide of manganese, oxide of copper,
and metallic copper filings, and the absorp-
tion bottle K containing hydroxide of potas-
sium to absorb the carbon dioxide. The
vessel B, containing the spring gas, is
attached to the circuit by means of the
T-tube between F and M, while the lower
end of the vessel B is connected by an
indiarubber tube to the water reservoir N.
By lifting N to the necessary height, the
gas in B was continually submitted to a
slightly greater pressure than that of the
atmospheric air. The gas in the circuit
could find an outlet through the T-tube T
inserted between the pump and the collecting bottle.

We began operations by filling the collecting bottle, F, with water, and then
closing it by clipping the two indiarubber tubes forming the inlet and outlet of
the bottle. Keeping the T-tube T open, we pumped out the rest of the circuit by
means of the Prytz pump, and washed it out a few times by refilling it with gas
from the vessel and pumping it out again with the pump. Finally this part of the
circuit was filled with spring gas up to the pump. The clips over the entrance
tubes of the bottle F were then unscrewed and the bottle being in a slanting
position, the water ran out of it through T, the bottle being filled at the same
time with spring gas from the vessel B. As soon as the bottle is full of spring
gas, the tube T and the connecting tube between the vessel B and the circuit are

' K. Phvtz: Zeitschr. f. Instrumentenkunde. 1905, p. 193.

Fig. 9.

218 40

closed. By pumping the gas in the circuit in the direction shown by the arrow,
the sulphuretted hydrogen and the carbon dioxide are absorbed. The gases absorbed
in the circuit are soon replaced by fresh spiùng gases introduced by opening the
tube connecting the vessel with the circuit.

When the continued circulation of the gas does not further reduce the pressure
in the circuit, showing that the absorption of the sulphuretted hydrogen and the
carbon dioxide is nearly completed, the oxide of copper and the copper filings are
heated, in order to destroy the free hydrogen and oxygen. When the spring gas
contained carbon dioxide in exceptional quantities, it might happen that the caustic
potash in the absorption flask K would not be sufficient to absorb the carbonic
acid gas completely. Then the used solution of caustic potash was removed from
K, by compressing a little of the gas above the solution, and then opening the
stop-cock h. When the solution had mostly run out, the stop-cock was turned off.
A fresh solution of caustic potash was then sucked into K by reducing the pressure
in the flask.

After having in this way freed the gas in the circuit of its contents of
sulphuretted hydrogen, carbon dioxide, oxygen, Iiydrogen and other combustible
gases, the pressure in the collecting bottle was reduced a little, and the bottle
closed by melting. The volume of the bottles used to collect these gas samples
was 500—800 ccm.

After the journey the sealed bottles were brought to the Physical Laboratory
of the Polytechnic Academy, Copenhagen, where I undertook a closer examination
of the gases contained in the bottles. Of course, this investigation naturally came
under two heads, viz. an ordinary quantitative analysis of the gases contained in
the bottles of 150 ccm.; and an attempt to trace and partly to determine the
amount of the rare inactive gases collected in the larger bottles containing
500—800 ccm.

3. Analysis of the gases.

In the quantitative analysis I aimed at a determination of the relation between
the following gases contained in the spring gas : sulphuretted hydrogen, carbon
dioxide, oxygen, hydrogen, methane, and nitrogen, plus the inactive gases.

In the analysis work 1 employed a Pettersson analysis apparatus from the
firm of Franz Müller (Dr. H. Geislers Nachf) Bonn a/R.

The measuring tube contained 35 ccm., and the smallest divisions corresponded
to j*g ccm. so that I could with considerable accuracy read ^^ ccm. In connection
with this apparatus 1 used absorption pipettes for absorbing sulphuretted hydrogen,
carbon dioxide, and oxygen, and an explosion pipette.

To transport the gas to be examined conveniently and safely from the col-
lecting bottle to the measuring tube, I proceeded in the following way: The end of
the sealed tube of the collecting bottle was knocked ofl" while held under the sur-
face of mercury, and a short indiarubber tube, which could be closed by a clip

41 219

was pushed on the rest of the glass tube, while it still remained under the mercury,
in order to prevent atmospheric air getting into the bottle. Then the other end
of the bottle was immersed in the mercury, and knocked off in the same way.
This end of the bottle was then connected, by means of an indiarubber tube, with
a mercury resei'voir that could be raised and sunk to adjust the pressure of the gas
in the bottle. Of course, care was taken that the indiarubber tube was quite filled
with mercury before it was pushed on the glass tube. The other tube of the col-
lecting bottle, that which was first broken, was then connected, by means of the
above mentioned indiarubber tube, with the entrance tube of the measurer, and we
were ready to conduct the gas under investigation from the bottle into the measuring
tube. I endeavoured, by keeping the mercury reservoir in a suitable position, to
avoid rarefaction of the gas in the bottle, so that possible small leakages in the
indiarubber connection could not result in a mixture of atmospheric air with the
gas examined. As it was a very difficult matter to force the air completely out
of the measuring tube and the accompanying inlet tube by means of mercury,
the remaining atmosphere was excluded by washing the measurer a few times
with small quantities of the gas, before the gas to be used for analysis was
introduced.

The subsequent conduct of the analysis was roughly as follows. The sul-
phuretted hydrogen was first absorbed by a small globe of pure peroxide of man-
ganese moistened by thick phosphoric acid. The absorption took place above
mercury in an absorption pipette. Then the carbon dioxide was absorbed by a
strong solution of caustic potash, and the oxygen was destroyed by a solution of
pyrogallic acid in a solution of caustic potash. This solution was made according
to a prescription of Hempel ', by mixing 5 grams of pyrogallic acid dissolved in
15 ccm. of distilled water with 120 grams of hydroxide of potassium dissolved in
80 ccm. of distilled water.

After having measured the volume of the remaining gas, a known amount of
oxygen or air, and if necessary a mixture of 2 volumes of hydrogen and one
volume of oxygen, was admitted, and the gases mixed brought to explosion in the
explosion pipette. After the explosion the remnant gas was examined for carbon
dioxide and oxygen in the same way as before. Of course the gas after every
absorption was drawn back to the measuring tube and its volume determined.
By repetition of the test I made sure of a complete absorption in every case.

4. luvestigatiou of the rare inactive gases contained in the spring gases.

The bottles containing the gas collected for investigation of the rare, inactive
gases, were opened in the same way as the other collecting bottles, except that in
this case 1 employed water instead of mercury to shut out tlie air.

I used the arrangement shown in Fig. 10 in the subsequent treatment of the

- Hempel: Gasanalytische Methoden, 3. Aufl. 1900, p. 133.

U. K. I). Viilensk, Selsk. Skr.. 7. Hiflilie, naluividensU.ii(< TiKillicm. Afil. VIII 4, 29

220

To the
'pump 11

*4=^

gas. The measurer A, volume 800 ccm., is connected, by means of the hard glass
tube C, to the collecting bottle F containing the gas under investigation.

The gas is cut ofî from the surrounding air by water. The hard glass tube C
contains, in three separate compartments, reduced copper, copper oxide and solid
hydroxide of potassium. The part containing the copper and the copper oxide
is heated, and, by conducting the gas several limes through the tube, possible
small remnants of combustible gases, oxygen and carbon dioxide in the gas are
destroyed.

At last all that remains now consisting only of nitrogen and rare, inactive
gases, is left behind in the measuring tube A, where its volume is determined. In
the meantime I have, by means of the mercury air pump, exhausted the hard
glass tube M, containing a mixture ' of 1 part of magnesium powder, 5 parts of

freshly burned lime (CaO)
J and 0.1 part of metallic

sodium ; the tube is kept
at red heat for about two
hours, while the mercury
pump works constantly to
remove the gases evolved by
the hot Mg-CaO-Na mixture.
When the mixture has been
heated so long that the gas
evolution has for the most
part ceased, the communica-
tion to the pump is inter-
rupted by closing the stop-
cock Ä^, and then the gas in
the measurer A is admitted
to the absorption tube by opening the stop-cock H. On its way to M the gas is
desiccated by phosphorus pentoxide in the tube P. Then the gas is passed through
the porous plug R, which is inserted in order to avoid too violent entrance of the
gas into the empty tube M. After the absorption of the nitrogen the tube M, while
still hot, is emptied by means of the mercury pump, and the remaining gas is
collected above mercury in a collecting tube.

Although the remaining gases obtained as above described consist mainly of
rare, inactive gases, yet small amounts of hydrogen and carbon monoxide evolved
from the mixture, and perhaps even a trifle of nitrogen, are found.

The remaining work is to purify the rare, inactive gases from these impurities,
and to separate the argon and helium.

As I had so many gas samples, (nearly 20), the following order of experi-
menting with these gas samples turned out to be the most practicable. First, all
' Hkmpel I. e. p. 150.

Fig. 10.

221

the samples were eulircly purified from the small amount of nitrogen they contained,
then the hydrogen and the carbon monoxide were destroyed, and at last, having
determined the volumes of the remaining gases, — now only consisting of rare,
inactive gases, -- the argon and the helium were separated.

In these three different operations, viz. the absorption of nitrogen, the destruc-
tion of hydrogen and carbon

monoxide, and the sépara- To the water jet pump

tion of argon and helium, I
make use of an arrangement
in all essentials similar to
that shown in Fig. 11. One
end of the tube connection
R, K, P is attached to the
automatic mercury pump,
while the other end is closed
by the porous plug C, which,
together with the bend b of
the tube R, is constantly
covered by mercury in the
glass vessel N. All the india-
rubber connections between
the tubes are made airtight
by mercury. Having emptied
the tubes up to the plug C
by means of the mercury
pump until a complete va-
cuum is attained, the gas is
sucked into the system of
tubes R, K, P through the
porous plug C, by sinking
the tube containing the gas
into the mercury of the vessel
N, until the plug is in con-
tact with the gas. In the
glass tube K, the form of
which varies according to
the purpose of the experi-
ment, the gas is passed over
the agent intended to react on it. The remaining gas can now very easily be
collected again in the collecting tube by means of the pump, and in order to
make sure that the reaction is complete, the gas is twice passed through the tubes
R, K, P. It is evident that one could go on indefinitely in this way, but it was

29'

Fig. 11.

222 44

usually sufficient to pass the gas twice through the agent in order to ohtain the
result aimed at by the experiment.

With respect to the glass apparatus K, it was a hard glass tube containing
the before mentioned Mg-CaO-Na mixture when nitrogen was to be absorbed.

When hydrogen and carbon monoxide were to be destroyed, the combustion
tube K contained copper oxide; in this case, moreover a glass tube containing
solid hydroxide of potassium was inserted to absorb the carbon dioxide formed
by the combustion of carbon monoxide. The temperature of the copper oxide was
generally allowed to fall below red heat before the gas was pumped out of the
tube for the last time.

To separate argon and helium, the tube K had the form indicated in Fig. 11.
The little bulb contained charcoal, made by bringing fragments of cocoanut shells
to a great heat. The bulb was environed by liquid air before the gas was admitted.
Then argon, xenon and krypton are, as Dewar has found, retained by the charcoal,
while helium and neon are only slightly absorbed by the charcoal at the temper
ature of liquid air.

By means of porous contact in the mercury cup Q, the gas contained in the
tubes P, K, R could be introduced into the spectrum tube S, so that it could be
investigated in the spectroscope. As expected, the investigation with the spectro-
scope showed that the gas not absorbed by the charcoal contained helium. Besides
this spectrum of helium, the spectrum of neon was in many cases very conspicuous,
showing that the spring gases in question contain neon in quantities comparable
with the amount of helium.

In some of the spectra investigated, some lines due to mercury and hydrogen
also appeared, but they were only visible in the beginning when the pressure of
the gas in the spectrum tube was very small, and disappeared under increased
pressure. They were always much fainter than the strong lines due to helium
and neon. I concluded from this that the amount of hydrogen contained in the
remaining gas was so small, in proportion to the amount of helium and neon, that
it could be considered as a negligible quantity in the consecutive measurement of
the volume of the helium-neon mixture. Having collected the helium-neon mixture
in a small collecting tube, the liquid air was removed, and by the consequent
heating of the charcoal the greater part of the gas absorbed became free. The last
remnant of the gas was freed by heating the charcoal to some two hundred degrees
by means of the spirit lamp.

To measure the small volumes of the gases in question, I employed a volumeno-
meter, — originally designed by Professor K. Prytz, — in a slightly modified form.
The apparatus as I used it is illustrated by Fig. 12. The two vertical glass tubes
A and B are provided with divisions, and communicate underneath; but their upper
ends are closed by the porous plugs M and N, which are covered by mercury. By
raising the mercury reservoir Q, which is connected by the indiarubber lube L to
the measuring tubes A and B, the air is expelled from the tubes. The remaining

223

r)'

air is drawn out through the porous phigs M and N hy means of the mercury pump.
The exhausted tube B is now used as a barometer tube, while the vohime of tiie
gas under examination is gauged in tube A.

To introduce the gas into the measuring tube
A, the uppermost part of the latter is narrowed, the
outward diameter being only 6 mm., so that the
collecting tube G may be pushed over it. By sinking
the collecting tube G, the gas contained in it is
sucked through the porous plug into A, provided
that the pressure in A is less than that of the
atmosphere. The apparatus has turned out to be
exceedingly convenient for rapid and accurate mea-
surements of small volumes of gas, which are col-
lected by means of the mercury pump in the collect-
ing tubes. This method ensures that the gas is quite
safely transported into the measuring tube. Besides
this, the measurements of the volume can be per-
formed at a suitably low pressure, so that considerable
accuracy can be obtained in spite of the volumes to
be measured being extremely small.

In order to prevent impurities of air being carried
by the mercury through the indiarubber tube into
the tubes A and B, the glass lube connecting the
indiarubber tube with the measuring tubes is pro-
vided with an air receiver F. This receiver is shown
in section in Fig. 12. The air carried by the mer-
cury through the inlet b, is collected in the space
beneath the porous plug A". There is usually great
pressure in this space, and the gas collected is there-
fore forced up through the plug, and escapes into the
atmosphere. On the other hand, the mercury resting
above the plug prevents the air from penetrating
into the plug. When the apparatus is arranged in
this way, the small amount of gas under ordinary
pressure contained in the porous plug is seldom
rarified, and never to such an extent that it cannot
be contained in the bulb of the receiver, without any danger of the air escaping
into the measuring tubes.

Before abandoning this section on the apparatus and methods employed in
this investigation, I shall briefly describe the mercury air pump I used. It is an
air pump with falling mercury. The construction of the glass tube through which

V=Ja

Fig. 12.

~ 20

- 42

— 55

- 76

-152

224 46

the mercury falls, and the manner in which Ihe mercury falls inlo the tube, are
distinguishing features of this pump.

The outer diameter of the fall-tube is 8 mm., the inner diameter 4.5 mm. at
the top, but it rapidly narrows so that the inner diameter, 5 mm. from the top, is
only 4 mm. The fall-tube consists of many capillary tubings of different inner
diameters, as the following table shows.

Inner diameter Length of the tube reckoned from tlie top
4 mm. 0.5 — 5 cm.

3 »
2.5 >
2 »
1.3 »
2 »

Of course, care was taken that the passage from one dimension to another should
be as even as possible. The fall-tube is consequently conical and the advantage
obtained with this form, will presumably appear with sufficient clearness from the
following description of the working of the pump.

The uppermost end of the fall-tube is situated in the middle of a concentrical
glass bulb g, Fig. 11, with a diameter of 2.5 cm. The mercury is conducted through
the side tube s into the bulb g and fills the space around the fall-tube. On account
of the surface forces the mercury can stand higher in the space round the tube
than the brim of the tube, without flowing into it. By continued influx of mercury,
however, the surface forces cannot resist and the mercury suddenly falls from all
sides into the tube, and at the same time cuts olT the gas contained in it. As the
mercury Hows many times more rapidly away through the fall-tube, widened at
the lop, than it enters through the side tube s, the influx of the mercury in the
fall- tube is soon interrupted. Then the mercury in g is raised again and after a
short time a new volume of mercury falls, as just now described, into the tube.

All the mercury that falls into the tube forms a coherent column, forcing the
gas by its weight down the tube. Owing to the conical form of the fall-tube, the
mercury column becomes longer the farther it comes down the tube, and therefore
it has still more power to drive the compressed gas downwards, and at the same
time there is less probability that the gas can escape back through the mercury.
At low pressure the resistance of the gas to the falling mercury is quite infinitesimal,
and the latter would therefore gain a great velocity, and consequently be liable to
disintegrate into small drops, unless the friction in the tapering tube diminished
the speed. The conical form of the tube also is conducive to keep the mercury
together in one body, for the friction is greater at the lower end of the column.
The mercury at the upper end of the column will therefore exert a pressure on
the mercury beneath. In my opinion, it is also necessary that the tube should
be narrow in the spot where the falling mercury coincides with that standing in

47 225

the tube, so that the small gas bubbles collected in this spot may be pushed down
the lube together with them ercury. The lower part of the tube becomes wider again,
so that the mercury can flow with sufficient rapidity out of the tube. The width
of this part of the tube is so adjusted that the mercury in the lower part is still
moving downward when the consecutive portion coincides with it, provided that
the tube is a vacuum, and that (he intervals between the two bodies of mercury
are suitable. In this way the fall-tube is exempted from violent concussions of the
mercury, and (he spol in which the portions of mercury coincide still remains
covered by mercury when the succeeding body of mercury closes the upper end of
the tube. Thus the pump is entirely without detrimental space. The theory of
the working of this pump is the same as that of the Geisler pump. In both cases
a known volume of the gas is cut oiT and then expelled. The sole difference is
that the gas volume cut off is greater in the Geisler pump than in the pump just
described, but on Ihe other hand the strokes of the pump are much more frequent.
With the dimensions above mentioned, the gas volumes cut off in the tube by
the falling mercury were about 4 ccm., and the strokes of the pump were, as a rule,
about 80 per minute.

The working of the pump is probably as efficient at high as at low pressure,
and although it does not perhaps work so quickly as a large Geisler pump, yet
I think it may be used with advantage especially in analytical work; amongst
other reasons, because it is very cheap and it does not require specially cautious
handling.

After working a long time, however, the tube becomes more fragile and at
last breaks, but in my experience it is sufficient to attach the fall-tube to the
glass bulb g, by means of indiarubber tubing, rendered airtight by mercury, the
fall-tube can then be easily replaced. I have, however, used the same fall-tube
for a year, and many times during this period the pump has worked incessantly
for 7 hours. On the whole, the same tube has sustained the working of the pump
during many hundred hours without breaking. By fastening the fall-tube to the
wood-work of the pump special care must be taken that no tension arises in the
glass for it will inevitably cause a premature fracture of the tube. It is sufficient
to fasten the tube in two places to the wood-work.

A great advantage is that this air pump with falling mercury is especially
suitable for automatic working. I have used a water jet pump for raising the
mercury to the height required. The mode of proceeding is the same as usual,
and is illustrated by Fig. 11. The air sucked by the jet pump enters the tubing r
through the side tube a, but as the air passage through a is made narrow, which
is most conveniently done by means of an indiarubber tube and a screw clip, the
air in r, is rarified so that the mercury in the vessel N is raised into r. The air
entering at a divides the mercury into small drops which are carried by the air
current into the reservoir 0, where the mercury is collected, while the air is passed
on to the jet pump. The mercury is conducted from the reservoir through the

226 48

glass Uibings shown in Fig. 11, to the glass bulb g, whence it falls through the
fall-tube, and in this way comes back to the vessel N, where it started. The
T-tube T is inserted, so that the mercury is not drawn into the tube r when its
surface in N is lower than tlie T-tube. For this reason, the porous plug C is
never exposed to the air.

III.
On the results.

In the accompanying table of analyses. Table I, the name and number of the
springs, in the first column, refers to the designation given in the description of
the surroundings of the springs, (Part I), where particulars of their position and
appearance will also be found. In the column headed "Calculated Boiling Point',
is given the boiling point of distilled water calculated from the atmospheric pres-
sure at thespring at the time of investigation.

The integral parts of the spring gas are expressed in their percentage to the
volume of the gas; thus, the statement that the sample of the spring gas "Krafla
No. 1" contains 12.6 "/o sulphuretted hydrogen, signifies that 100 ccm. of the spring
gas in question contains 12.6 ccm. of sulphuretted hydrogen. The volumes are
reduced to 760mm. pressure and 0 Centigrade. Column "R" gives the percentage
of the volume of the gas not absorbed by the agents usually employed in analysing
gas, i. e. nitrogen, plus rare, inactive gases.

The radium emanation contained in 1 ccm. of the spring gas is expressed in
the before-mentioned unit, (cf. p. 30), and is to be found in columns Ci and Cn of
the table. C i is calculated from the emanation measured in 100 ccm. of the spring
gas a few hours after the gas was collected, while Cn is calculated from the
emanation measured in 200 ccm. of the spring gas after standing about four days
in the collecting bottles.

Probably the first point which strikes one on considering the accompanying
table, is the great heterogeneity in the composition of the spring gases. Even samples
taken from springs in the same locality sometimes show a considerable lack of
uniformity in their composition. As a rule, however, springs in the same group
evolve gases of almost the same composition. In cases where there is great
incongruity in the gases, it will generally be found that there is a corresponding
incongruity in the appearance of the springs. On the whole, the outward condi-
tions and appearance of the springs seem to be to a great extent dependent on the
composition of the spring gases. Springs which evolve gas containing sulphuretted
hydrogen have generally a most unpicturesque appearance. The spring water
becomes turbid through dark mineral particles being suspended in the water. If

227

Table I.

Springs

ål

0. u
H 'S

4-»

•a .3

B (X
3 BO

— .S

Composition of the Spring Gases
in percentage of tiie Volume

Emanation

Coefficient of
decay a'xW

Remarks

explored

H,S

»lo

CO,

"lo

"(o %

»lo

R Na

»lo °lo

"lo

C II

Krafla Xo. 1

'-=|606

86°

98.0°

12.6

80.9

3.5

3.0 -

3.01

2.69

2.56

— No. 2

"-'■U0&

82°

98.0°

13.9

73.5

9.3

3.3

—

5.30

5.20

2.21

Nàmafjall No. 1 .

■•^Weoe

76°

98.8°

2.2

37.5

49.0

5.9

—

1.74

1.76

2.15

— No. 2 . .

='lo06

55°

98.8° :

—

1.66

1.57

2.47

- No. 3 .

■^■leoe

94°

98.8°

—

1.75

1.76

2.16

— No. 4 . .

5si(g06

c. 90°

98.5°

18.4

30.0

2.6

—

5.55

5.12

2.31

— No. 5 . .

"looe

97°

98.3°

—

— .

—

11.1

9.87

2.40

Reykjahliô No. 1 .

»"IgOG

44°

0.02

21.1

78.9

—

0.000

—

— No. 2 . .

"le 06

46°

—

0.039

—

Reykir No. 1

"I706

62.0°

99.3°

100.0

98.49

1.48

0.0132

1.74

2.16

Sundlaug

— No. 2

"It 06

66.5°

99.3°

„

„ ! 100.0

98,36

1.60

0.0140

1.52

1.25

3.22

Hornahver

— No. 3

»I706

64.2°

99.3°

100.0

—

0.82

0.78

2.31

Bæjarlaug

— No. 4

■'I706

65°

99.5°

100.0

—

2.31

2.15

2.37

Fosshver

— No. 5

■"17 06

17.3°

99.5°

100.0

98.34

1.61

0.0146

1.26

1.25

2.19

Skiöastaöa-

Hveravellir No. 2

«I706

95°

97.6°

2.8

79.5

0.9

16.8

16.5

0.294

0.0050

4.05

4.28

2.04

laug

- No, 10

23(7 06

77°

97.5°

44.9

1.4

7.0

46.7

—

5.73

6.25

1.90

- No. 27

•"(7 06

82°

97.5°

40.0

1.5

7.0

51.5

—

12.3

13.1

1.94

Blåhver

— No. 16

«1,06

93.5°

97.8°

46.7

0.7

1.5

5.4

45.7

—

26.0

27.9

2.00

Fagri liver

— No. 25

•^7,06

81°

97.5°

77.8

1.0

0.2

21.0

20.6

0.441

0.0063

18.6

20.0

1.90

Kjalhraun No. 1 . .
- No. 2 . .

■^"17 06
"I7O6

87°
88°

0.1

20.7

79.2

—

0.021
0.005

KerlingarfjöU No. 1

^«(7 06

94°

96.6°

—

18.5

—

- No. 2

2^17 06

92°

96.5°

14.4

71.1

11.7

0.3

2.5

—

18.8

17.2

2.64

— No. 3

»V7O6

94°

96.8°

7.4

66.9

21.7

0.9

3.1

—

35.0

42,3

1.80

~ No. 4

"I7O6

94.5°

96.7°

13.1

70.7

14.5

0.7

1.0

—

33.5

40.0

1.81

Grafarbakki No. 1

^IsOe

96°

99.9°

6.4

0.8

1.1

91.7

90.0

1.68

0.0104

7.63

7.11

2.35

Klofi

— No.2|

*|806

'isoe

97.5°

99.6°

0.1

3.7

0.6

95.6

93.4

2.15

0.0105

5.86

6.00

|2.09

No. 3

<(e06

97.0°

99.6°

1.3

„

0.9

0.1

97.7

—

5.50

5.20

2.31

Laugaràs No. 1 . . .

«l806

96°

99.8°

0.7

99.3

97.4

1.93

0.0104

4.48

4.12

2.39

Jjvottahver

— No. 2 . .

»(8 06

98.5°

99.8°

0.7

99.3

—

5.12

5.03

2.21

SuBuhver

— No. 3 . .

«(8 06

93.0°

99.8°

1 tl

0.5

99.5

97.4

2.1

—

3.06

3.26

2.03 t

Reykjafoss No. 1 . .

'^(806

93.0°

99.9°

27.0

2.5

0.2

1.0

69.3

67.9

1.36

0.0103

7.65

7.17

2.32

- No. 2..'

"/soe

■^(8 06

94°

99.9°

6.7

87.9

0.6

0.3

4,5

—

1.25
1.47

1.27

2.12

— No.3..{

»(8 06
»Is 06

96°

99.9°

5.7

85.6

1.4

0.3

7.0

—

2.51

2.88

No. 4..

'••/806

99.4°

' 99.9°

!'l2.0

84.5

0.2

3.3

—

3.15

3.40

1.90

Hengill No. 1

"(806

94.5°

98.9° 11.0

73.4

13.5

0,3

1.8

0.0113

0.00059

2.60

2.70

2.05

- No. 2

■»isoe

75.5°

98.9°

3.9

79.7

13,2

0.4

2.7

—

3.30

3,55

1.92

— No. 3

■«Is 06

91°

98.9°

11.2

67.0!

17.2

0.6

4.0

3.9

0.088

0.0020

4.32

4.16

2.32

— No. 4

"isoe

97°

99.1°

7.4

72.0

16.4

0.9

3.3

—

5.37

5.54

2.09

1 1). K

1). Viilei

sk. Selsli

.Skr., 7

. Ra-kk

e, natu

■vitieiiî.

k. i<A I

1:1 til em

, \u\. \

Ill 4.

228 50

there is plenty of water, these particles are constantly washed away, the water
consequently attaining a grayish colour. Most of the hot springs at Kerlingarfjöll,
and some at Hengill, are of this description. On the other liand, where the small
particles find an opportunity of accumulating around the springs, they mix with
the spring water, forming a thin pulpy kind of mud. In this way the mud pools
and mud volcanoes at Nâmafjall, (Hlîi'tarnâmur), Hverageröi, etc. have been formed.
It is an obvious conclusion that the small particles are produced by the action on
the rocks of sulphuretted hydrogen, or of sulphuretted hydrogen and carbonic acid
gas combined.

The case is quite different in springs where nitrogen is the chief constituent
in the composition of the spring gas. The water is then as clear as ordinary spring
water, and only slight sediments are to be found deposited around the springs.

In the warm soil in the immediate vicinity of the springs a vegetation flourishes
which is quite luxuriant for the climate, not being checked by the poisonous sul-
phuretted hydrogen, as is the case in the neighbourhood of the solfataras. Where
the temperature of the springs is not very high, as for instance at Reykir, the
vegetation has advanced almost to the immediate edge of the spring, leaving only
a small outlet for the hot spring water.

Practically the only thing which distinguishes these springs from ordinary
well springs is the bluish-gray cloud produced by the condensation of the vapours
arising from the hot spring water.

The hot springs at Laugaras are similar, but owing to their intense heat and
the consequent violent ebullition of the water, the vegetation has retired to a greater
distance from the springs.

With the exception of two geysers, the hot springs at Grafarbakki are of the
same nature as those in the two places already mentioned. There is a particularly
close resemblance between them and the hot springs at Laugaras.

Although there are, as already shown, only infinitesimal deposits of sediment
at the three places mentioned, tlie spring water nevertheless contains a considerable
quantity of dissolved salts.

For instance, we filled an enamelled saucepan with water from a hot spring
at Laugarås, and placed it in the water at the edge of the same spring. In this
manner the saucepan was kept hot, and after a few hours the water in it had
evaporated, leaving behind a considerable amount of white salts, partly crystallized.
All the hot springs investigated at Reykir, Laugarås and Grafarbakki were like-
wise proved by direct test to contain carbonates and chlorides, and most of them
also traces of sulphates. At all these places the water was alkaline.

A peculiar feature of the Laugarås and the Grafarbakki "hvers," distinguishing
them from the hot springs at Reykir, is that the spring gas contains traces of
sulphuretted hydrogen. At Laugarås the sulphuretted hydrogen could only be
detected on the spot by means of the most delicate tests, while one of the gas
samples from Grafarbakki contained 0.1 "/u of sulphuretted hydrogen when it was
analysed in Copenhagen. That no sulphuretted hydrogen was found in the other

51 229

gas samples from Grafarbakki is probably due to the fact that these samples con-
tained a little oxygen. Wliile the gas was in the collecting bottle the small amount
of sulphuretted hydrogen became oxidized and consequently disappeared.

According to the analysis, the spring gases at Grafarbakki contain a small
percentage of carbonic acid gas, and it is not inconceivable that the presence of
this gas and the larger volume of sulphuretted hydrogen in the spring gas are to
some extent altributable to similar causes.

Around the hot springs at Grafarbakki a slightly larger deposit is to be seen
on the stones than at Laugards or Reykir. At Reykir the deposit is infinitesimal

That there is a greater deposit at Grafarbakki is, I think, partly due to the
carbon dioxide contained in the gas; 1 can see no other reason why the deposits
should be larger here than at the other two places mentioned.

As far as the carbon dioxide contained in the gas and the silicious sediments
around the springs are concerned, the "livers" at Grafarbakki more resemble the
third type of hot springs, i. e. hot springs with considerable silicious sediments,
silicious sinters. Of the hot springs I investigated in the summer of 1906, the
"hvers" at Hveravellir are the most important representatives of this class. The
beautiful, cream-coloured silicious sinters here form two eminences of considerable
height and of great extent.

The spring gases given off by these springs are characterized by a great
amount of carbon dioxide, though they contain very little sulphuretted hydrogen.
As before mentioned, the carbon dioxide contained in the spring gases probably
tends to the production of siHcious sediments. The gas sample Reykjafoss No. 1
is of a similar composition. This spring must therefore be considered amongst the
springs of this third type, in spite of its very small deposits.

The spring gas from Hveravellir contains more oxygen than that from Reykja-
foss No. 1, and perhaps this has some influence on the solution of the silicious
compounds in the boiling spring water, although there are probably other more
decisive factors.

In this connection it is worthy of mention that the alkaline springs at Reykja-
foss seem to be very changeable. A good example of this is "Litli Geysir,"
which was previously a ver yactive geyser, but which has now been inactive for a
long time.

A similar example is to be seen in the great basin from which I collected
gas samples in the summer of 1904. It was then a very energetic hot spring, but
the basin is now filled with clear, tranquil water, and no gas is evolved.

The changes in the hot springs at this place seem to have been closely con-
nected with the earthquakes which have taken place, no doubt on account of this
group of hot springs being situated just on the outskirts of the district most sub-
ject to earthquakes. ' In such districts comparatively large displacements must take

' In connection with the influence of earthquakes on the hot springs of Iceland, see Ji. Thoroddsen's
paper in Geogr. Tidsskr. 15, 109, 18i)'.l-l'J00.

30"

230 52

place during an earthquake. One lias therefore good ground for supposing that the
changeability of the hot springs at Reykjafoss is to some extent responsible for the
insignificance of the silicious sinters around the existing springs, as the deposit of
these sediments is a very slow process. The spring water must work in the same
place for a long period before leaving any visible signs of its activity.

In contrast to the spring water with absorbed sulphuretted hydrogen, which
in Iceland breaks down all the rocks with which it comes into contact and causes
them to crumble, the alkaline spring water with absorbed carbonic acid gas seems
to smooth out its course and enclose it with a crust of silicious sinter. This pro-
cess possibly begins a little below the surface of the earth. If that be so, we can
still better understand why the alkaline springs at Reykjafoss have such small
stratifications, for by reason of the frequent changes in the course of the water,
the silicious compounds dissolved in the spring water are used up in enclosing the
course of the water through the crust of the earth. On the other hand, there is
in the neighbourhood of Reykjafoss a large number of silicious sinters dating
farther back.

A very common feature of the springs belonging to the last-mentioned type,
is that most of them are periodic springs, and many of them are geysers. The
same is the case with the alkaline hot springs at Reykjafoss and at Hveravellir,
and very probably the thermal springs at "Störi Geysir" are of the same kind.

There are only scattered and rather imperfect observations in existence con-
cerning the periods of these springs, so that at present one cannot affirm more
than that it is possible for springs belonging to the same group to have different
periods. Many examples of this can be seen at Hveravellir. For instance J>orvaldur
Thoroddsen' states that Nos. 15 and 16 have longer periods than the surrounding
springs. According to our less studied observations. No. 12 has a period of many
hours, while most of the other springs have periods of not more than a few
minutes. I had no opportunity of making a closer investigation on this point.
Most probably, however, the case is the same here as at the two geysers at Graf-
arbakki. In mentioning these geysers, f>. Thoroddsen - remarks that they spout
alternately, and that each eruption lasts for a minute. I made observations of the
eruptions of these geysers on the 5th. August 1906. The barometer stood at 757.4 mm.
and the temperature of the air was 13° Centigrade.

These observations (see Table II) show a very regular period on the part of
the southern geyser. The pauses between the eruptions are very nearly equal, 608
seconds on the average. The measurements of the eruptions, on the other hand,
seem to indicate that they have a double period lasting about 44 and 53 seconds
alternately. But the measurements are too few to permit of a decision as to
whether this is due to a fortuitous circumstance or not.

The figures for the northern spring do not show the same regularity, but as

' loc. cit.

- Geogr. Tidsskr. 10, 18, 1889—90.

231

Kiuption commenced

6h. 38'5ü"p. m.
40' 42"
42' 24"
44' 15"
45' 55"
48' 00"

6h. 39' 00" p. m.
41' 10"
43' 55',
46' 20"
48' 50"

Table II.

The S o u t h e !■ n Geyser.

Length of

Eruption ended

6h.37'48"p. m
39' 39"
41' 24"
43' 15"
45' 00"
46' 55"
48' 45"

eruption

49"
42"
51"
45"
60"
45"

Pause

Period

The Northern Geyser.

40' 35" 95"

42' 45" 95"

45' 38" 103"

47' 48" 88"

62"

111"

63"

105"

60"

111"

60"

105"

55"

115"

65"

110"

Mean : -

- 109.5"

35"

130"

70"

165"

42"

145"

62"

150"

Mean :

147.5"

I made the two observations simultaneously, while standing near the southern
spring, I consequently paid more attention to it than to the northern spring. The
irregularities observed in the periods of the latter may therefore very easily be due
to inaccuracy in the observations. The possibility of inaccuracy is enhanced by
the fact that the beginning and ending of the eruptions of this spring are observed
with difficulty, as the eruption rises very gradually to its full height, and falls like-
wise very slowly. It was therefore difficult at a distance to decide when the erup-
tion should be considered as begun or ended. The following observations, made
on the 7th. August 1906, seem to strengthen the conclusion that the irregularity is
due to inaccurate observation. Barometer 754.3 mm. Temperature of the air, 16' C.

Table III.
The Northern Geyser.

Eruption commenced

llh. 30'35"
34' 15"

38' 00"

Eruption ended
llh. 29' 27" a.m.
33' 05"
36' 48"

Length of
eruption

Pause
68"

150"

70"

153"

72"

Period

220"
225"

These measurements show that it is possible for this spring also to have
eruptions with very regular periods.

232 54

From the measurements made on the 5th. August, it appears that the southern
geyser has four eruptions while the northern geyser has three, for ;$ x 147.5"
= 442.5" and 4 x 109.5" = 438". But this is probably quite fortuitous.

p. Thoroddsen ' is of the opinion that these geysers had, in 1888, periods of
equal length, but my observations show that this is no longer the case.

From what is known of the nature of the geysers, it is to be expected that
the weather has considerable influence on the periods of the springs. This is con-
firmed by people who live in the neighbourhood of the springs. They have noticed
that the eruptions of "Störi Geysir" especiallj' are greatly dependent on the weather.
In this connection I can also refer to tlie observations made by Gilbert Mair^,
showing that the weather has great influence on the thermal springs of New Zea-
land. The observations given above are an additional corroboration of change-
ability in the periods of the geysers, f(n- on the 5th. August the period of the
northern geyser was 147 seconds on the average, but on the 7th. it was about 222
seconds. This difference is remarkably great, especially when it is taken into
account that only 41 liours elapsed between the two observations. Several hot
springs in Yellowstone National Park' are found to have more than one distinct
range of periods. Nevertheless it seems to me hardly probable that the differences
I observed are due to such a cause, amongst other reasons because the transmis-
sion from one range of periods to another is usually attended by a change in the
energy of the eruption, whereas, as far as I could discern, the eruptions were
equally powerful at the time of both observations.

There have been several theories advanced at diflerent times to explain the
activity of the geysers. A good idea of these so-called geyser theories can be formed
from Peale's treatise on "The Thermal Springs of Yellowstone National Park".*
A. Andreae' also mentions several geyser theories in his treatise on geyser models.

The best known geyser theory is that of R. Bunsen". As this theory, in spite
of several serious objections to it, — that of H. O. Lang", for instance, — seems
still to be the geyser theory most generally recognised, it will be made the basis
of the following remarks concerning the phenomena. All the later geyser theories
are to some extent based on Bunsens theory and the materials acquired by his
observations.

According to Bunsen'*, we must discern between hot springs with narrow

' loc. cit.

- New Zealand Trans. Inst. Î), pp. 22— 29, 1876.

' Twelfth Annual Report of the U. S. Geological and Geographical Survey of the Territories.
Washington, 1883. Vol. II.

' Twelfth Annual Report of the U. S. Geological and Geographical Survey of the Territories.
Washington, 1883; p. 417.

'* Neues Jahrbuch der Mineralogi. 1893. Vol. II, p. 1.

« Liebigs Ann. C2, 1. 1847.

' Nachrichten v. d. Königl. Gesellsch. d. Wissenschaften zu Göttingen, 1880; p. 225.

" loc. cit. p. 51).

55 233

channels and great heat energy supplied by hot water and steam, and hot springs
with wider channels and less heat energy. The former are constantly boiling
because the hot water cannot settle in the narrow channels on account of the hot
vapours and water which pass through them with great force. The latter are
periodic geysers. The wide and, (as at "Störi Geysir"), perpendicular channels are
filled with water which is almost stagnant. The temperature of the water at the
surface is kept a little below boiling point, but the temperature increases in pro-
portion to the depth of the water. The temperature is, however, always a little
below the boiling point of water at the same pressure.

Immediately after an eruption, this difference is rather great, but it gradually
lessens, until, just before the next eruption, according to measurements of the
temperature made in the geyser channel itself, the difference is so small that a
slight rising of the water column is sufficient to cause the water to boil.

The rising of the water is, according to Bunsen, explained by the fact that
many great basins with hot water, at "Störi Geysir" as well as at Reykjafoss, do
not give off air bubbles steadily, but periodically. Taking for granted that the
same thing happens at the bottom of the geyser channel, it will then cause a
periodic rising of the water, and thereby possibly an eruption.

As before stated, there are many objections to this theory. Lang', for instance,
regards the Bunsen theory as unsatisfactory, and as conflicting with other geological
theories, because it does not take into account the circulation of the water in the
geyser channel caused by the hotter water lower down in the channel having less
density than the colder water higher up. Neither does the Bunsen theory, in his
opinion, explain the intensity and periodicity of the eruptions. In this last point
I agree with Lang, though I have arrived at this conclusion on considerations
somewhat different to his.

In accordance with Bunsen's curves of the temperature in the geyser channel,
a rising of the water column immediately before an eruption would only result in
the temperature of the water in a small part of the channel becoming higher than
the boiling point at the same pressure. Then, of course, the water in this part of
the channel boils. But in ordinary circumstances this would by no means cause
an eruption. If the Bunsen theory be correct there must be some particular causes
at work in the geyser channel, but evidence on this point is entirely wanting.

Again, it is questionable whether Bunsen's method of dealing with the tempera-
ture measurements in the geyser channel, made by him and Desclgizeaux, is ab-
solutely correct. Of the five series of measurements they have made-, Bunsen
only uses the 2nd., 3rd. and 4th., without giving any reason for omitting the first
and the last series of observations. But these very observations omitted are of
primary importance, in that they are the first measurements made after eruptions.
Indeed, it seems as if the observers themselves do not have very much confidence

' loc. cit.

- Compt. Rend. 23, 934. 1847.

234

in these measurements, for the results of 3 out of the 7 measurements are given
with a note of interrogation. But the 4 remaining measurements may safely he
considered as reliable as those of the other 3 series.

I have made a graphic diagram of all the measurements, (Fig. 13), and con-

130'

III

^^^^:ii,^^

11 j^^^~---~-.

^^,

120°

\ \ \ \^

1111°

\iii

100°

90°

il,'),^

.sn°

Rl
Fig. 13.

20 m

nected by means of straight lines the temperatures belonging to each series of
observations. The roman figures denote the order in which the experiments suc-
ceeded each other. "I" shows the temperature immediately after a large eruption.
IV shows the temperature a little before the subsequent eruption, and V the
temperature after it.

57 235

From this diagram it is evident that the temperature measurements of the
two experiments omitted by Blnsen are in fair agreement with the other measure-
ments. Two measurements in the first experiment, however, seem to be a good
deal too high, but botli these measurements are given with a mark of interrogation,
and may therefore be regarded as uncertain. A glance at the diagram also shows
that the measurements of the second experiment, (line 4 in Bunsens paper), does
not agree with the other measurements. This would lead one to suppose that an
inaccuracy has crept into this experiment. This suspicion is strengthened by the
fact that if these measurements are correct, the temperature of the water must
have risen about 2° C. from 19.2 m. to 14.4 m., and 17° C. from 14.4 m. to 9.6 m.,
which seems in the highest degree improbable. Such abnormities are not to be
found in the other experiments. This disagreement is readily explained by sup-
posing that the thermometer measuring the temperature at 14.4 m. remained higher
up the channel, at about 17.8 m., and as all the thermometers were hanging on the
same string, the result would be that the thermometers which were farther down
the channel measured the temperature 3.4 m. higher up than was assumed by
BuNSEN and Descloizeaux. The dotted line, constructed on the basis of this sup-
position, now shows a fair consistence to the other lines. But the lines in this
instance have a vastly different significance to that which Bunsen assigned to them.
In the first place, we observe that the lines form a well-marked angle at about 9 m.
In this respect they resemble the temperature curves of Strokkur'. The significance
of this is evident enough. The heat supply is brought into the geyser channel in the
neighbourhood of the spot corresponding to the angle in the temperature curve,
i. e. about 9 m. from the bottom. Thus the temperature measurements are brought
into harmony with direct observations by Bryson-. He has found that at a depth
of 45 feet from the surface, there is a projecting rim in the geyser channel, and
that very hot water and steam flow into the channel immediately beneath this rim.
As it is known that Strokkur also has side channels, the manner in which the
temperature in the channel of this spring varies with the depth must naturally be
explained in the same way. Bunsen's supposition that the lower part of Strokkur's
channel must be full of steam, is therefore incorrect. It must be filled, as in the
case of "Störi Geysir", with stagnant or almost stagnant hot water.

Bunsen reports several peculiarities in the eruptions of "Störi Geysir", which
in his opinion indicate the existence of fissures in the sides of the geyser channel
supplying the channel with hot water and steam during the eruptions. But he
considers this to be of secondary importance. But it is, however, of great importance
in considering Bunsen's objections against Mackenzie's theory. Bunsen proved, by
actual experiment, that a thermograph could lie unmoved and unharmed at the
bottom of the channel during an eruption of "Störi Geysir". This, he contended,

' Liebigs Ann. 62, 39, 1847.

- Frost and Fii-e. Vol. II, p. 417.

U. K. I). ViiLensU. Selsli. SUr., 7. Rielike, nalurvldensk. ok mallicni. Afd. VIII. 4. 31

236 58

would not be possible if iiot water and steam, according to Mackenzie's theory,
rushed into the channel with great violence. This objection cannot now be main-
tained, as we know that the inlet to the geyser channel is situated 9- 10 m. from
the bottom.

My explanation of the measurements of Bunsen and Descloizeaux also shows
that Bunsens theory that the temperature at a given spot in the channel continually
increases from one eruption to another, can no longer be held in its entirety. For
if we replace line II bj' the dotted line, then lines I to IV show that the tempera-
ture at a given point in the geyser channel does not rise appreciably from the
cessation of one eruption to the commencement of the next.

The chief cause of the eruption is, therefore, to be sought outside the geyser
channel. Of course the energy accumulated in the channel will increase the power
of the eruption, but the calculations made by Bunsen to show that the water in
the channel is possessed of sufficient energy to sustain the eruption, do not, how-
ever, appear to me to be conclusive.

It is very difficult to form even an approximate estimate of the amount of
energy required for an eruption, and besides this, the calculations do not provide
for the diminution of the available energy, produced by the intermixture of hotter
and colder water.

Peale', who inclines perhaps most to Bunsen's theory, supposes, however,
that subterranean channels and cavities are of considerable significance in regard
to the geyser phenomena.

Bunsen himself inclines to the opinion that in the case of Strokkur, — which,
as already pointed out, resembles "Stori Geysir" in many particulars, — the motive
power of the eruption is outside the channel. He has come to this conclusion
through the following observations. One can cause Strokkur to spout by stopping
up its channel with sods. This makes the jet of water at first discoloured, on
account of the dirt the water in the channel has received from the stoppage. But
after a short time the water becomes clear as a fresh supply of water flows into
the channel from other channels deeper down.

In other respects Bunsen has been quite clear on the point that the typical
geyser channel is not the sole cause of the periodic eruptions. For instance, he
remarks in describing "Litli Geysir", that the eruptions of this spring are not due
to the same causes as those of "Stori Geysir". He seems to incline to the opinion
that the eruptions of "Litli Geysir" are most satisfactorily explained by Mackenzie's
theory.

Mackenzie's theory is illustrated by Fig. 14. The cavity A is supplied with
water (of atmospheric origin) through fissures in the walls of the cavity. The water
in A receives heat partly conducted from the volcanic surroundings, and partly by
a supply of highly heated steam. At last the temperature in A becomes so high

' Twelfth Annual Report of the U. S. Geological and Geographical Survey of the Territories.
Washington, 1883, p. 421.

237

vww^:^:\\vi

thai the pressure of the steam can withstand the pressure of the water column in
the channel. A sudden increase of the heat supply will then give rise to an eruption.

The principal fault of Mackenzie's theory is that it does not explain the
intermittence and periodicity of
the geysers, whicli are the most
characteristic features of the geyser
phenomena.

Amendments of this theory,
proposed by later scientists, have
not, as far as I know, overcome
these difficulties in a satisfactory
manner.

In order to see in what way
the existing theories need to be
amended in order to agree with
the existing facts, it will be very
instructive to make a closer
examination of an eruption of
one of the small geysers in its
different phases. I select as an
example the southern geyser at
Grafarbakki.

I-ig. 14.

Immediately after an eruption the small shallow basin is quite empty. The
dampness of the stones at the bottom of the basin is the only visible sign that
boiling water has recently filled the basin. But the water soon begins to show
itself between the stones at the bottom of the basin, and it rises steadily and rapidly.
At last it fills the whole basin and begins to overflow the brim. Shortly after, the
spring enters upon its next phase, when air bubbles commence rising through the
water from the bottom of the basin. The water is not boiling, for real ebullition
very seldom takes place in the Icelandic springs. The water is agitated by bubbles
of spring gas, which, saturated with vapour, force their way up through the water.
At first these bubbles are neither large nor numerous, but thej' increase rapidly
until at last they rise with such violence that the water is thrown up a little into
the air. The eruption has commenced.

At the height of the eruption the water column is fairly constant, but it some-
times happens towards the end, when the energy of the eruption is declining, that
two or three water jets suddenly rise far above the others. It looks as if the motive
energy pulls itself together for a last effort. At the close of the eruption the water
in the basin sinks down again into the earth, preparatory to the next eruption.

The main points of the mechanism of the periodic eruptions seem to be in-
cluded in the foregoing. I assume the supply of hot water, steam and spring gas
from the interior of the eartii to the lowest part of the spring channel, to be con-
st*

238 60

staut in all the hot springs, whether they be periodic or in a constant state of
ebullition. For I am nol aware of any reason why this supply should be periodic,
and this assumption is rendered more plausible by the fact that both periodic and
constantly boiling springs are often situated side by side in the same group of
springs, as, for instance, at Grafarbakki. It is therefore only in the shape and
position of the channel that one can expect to find the factors which cause the
periodic springs, — as distinguished from the constantly ebullient springs, — to
eject the liot water and spring gas periodically.

The fact that no gas bubbles rise through the water in the basin immediately
after an eruption proves that the spring gas, — which appears to be an inseparable
attribute of every Icelandic hot spring, is blocked up down in the spring channel.
I must therefore assume, with Mackenzie, that there are cavities down in the
earth, in which the spring gas is collected. And it is highly probable that the
spring water, by dissolving the rocks, has formed many such cavities down in the
earth, inasmuch as the spring water usually contains great quantities of dissolved
substances.

Although I think it is most probable that the majority of geysers have several
cavities connected with the spring channel, I will, in order to simplify the following
remarks, restrict myself chiefly to the case of only one cavity, as shown in Fig. 14.
It is evident that the same argument will hold good when the spring has many
cavities, although the whole subject then becomes more complicated. The water
in the bend of the channel B cuts off from the atmosphere the spring gas accu-
mulating in A. But as fresh spring gas is constantly coming from below, the
gas accumulated in A is constantly expanding. Again, the loss of heat in the
spring being comparatively small while the channel is stopped up, and the supply
of heat to A being constant, the temperature in it must consequently increase.
This causes an increase in the volume of the gas in A, on account of the expansion
of the gas itself, and the augmentation of the steam pressure through the increasing
temperature. This increase in the gas volume in A is at first counteracted by the
increasing pressure produced by the rising of the water in the channel B. At last
the volume of the gas in A increases so much that bubbles of spring gas, saturated
with vapour, begin to force their way through the channel B. The volume of the
first bubbles is, however, very much diminished on the way up, on account of the
condensation of a great deal of the vapour through contact with the colder water
in the channel. A considerable difference is possible in the temperature of the
water in different parts of the channel, especially when the channel is so narrow
that the water cannot circulate freely enough to distribute evenly the loss of heat
in the spring water which takes place in the upper part of the channel, through
the lower temperature of the surroundings. The condensation of the vapours from
the gas bubbles increases the temperature of the water, so that subsequent bubbles
are not so much diminished.

In ordinary circumstances a state of equilibrium will eventually ensue, in

61 239

which the bubbles will force their way up through the water in the channel of
the spring without producing any disturbance in the pressure in the channel. This
is the case with the continually ebullient springs. But if the channel is at any
point so narrow that the gas bubbles can fill it entirely, then the water column
resting on the gas volumes below becomes shorter. The decrease of pressure thus
produced will give rise to a more intense ebullition and emission of gas from the
cavities and adjacent side channels. The current of gas bubbles through the channel
becomes therefore more intense, and increasingly displaces the water from the
channel. Consequently the emission of gas and the ebullition increase still more,
as the pressure of the water diminishes.

At last the water columns barring the passage of the gas bubbles through the
channel become so few and so small, that the steam pressure from below can
easily overcome them. They are then forced through the channel with great speed,
and thrown to a considerable height when expelled. The eruption of the spring
is then in full activity. The length of the interval from the moment when the
first bubbles appear, until the eruption takes place, is to a great extent dependent
on the shape of the spring channel.

In springs with a simple form of channel, the eruption may commence sud-
denly, almost simultaneously with the appearance of the first gas bubbles. This
is most readily explained by the experiment of forcing air up a narrow perpen-
dicular glass tube filled with water. The air pushes the water column before it
up the tube, and expels the water almost all at once. On the other hand, where
the spring channel is irregular, being in some parts very wide and in others very
narrow, some time may elapse before the water is thrown so high above the basin
that a real eruption may be said to have begun.

The length and character of the eruptions also depend very much on the
shape of the channel, but in this respect the conditions under which evaporation
and ebullition take place down in the cavities is also of great importance. In the
interval between the eruptions, during which the spring is at rest, a large supply
of energy, in the form of highly healed water, is accumulated down in the cavities.
The duration of the eruptions seems to indicate that this reserve energy of the
spring has some resistance to overcome before it can properly develop itself. Of
course, some of the hot water is accumulated in recesses and side channels leading
to the principal cavities, and can only take effect gradually during the eruption,
because very probably it has first to pass through narrow channels into the prin-
cipal cavities.

During the eruption itself it is possible that the passage of the spring exhala-
tions through the principal spring channel may frequently be hindered by small
water columns, formed in the bends or narrow passages of the channel by the
water which the vapour carries from below, or which is convej'ed to the principal
channel from the side channels.

While the eruption is at its height these stoppages only last a very short

240 , 62

time, because the pressure of tlie steam from lielow drives tlrem along as soon as
they are formed, hut they are, however, ol suflicienl duration to account for the
intermittent character of tlie eruptions.

Wlien the eruption is on the decline and the evolution of steam decreases,
tlie water barricades can remain in the channel a little longer. The spring must
have time to gain strength to expel them, but when at last it is able to master
them, it will eject them from the channel with great velocity. This will doubtless
account for the extraordinarily high water jets which we noticed so often at the
end of the eruptions of the two geysers at Grafarbakki.

During the eruption the great water pressure usually prevailing in the spring
cavities becomes almost nil. The accumulated energy of the spring is therefore
liberated. But when this is exhausted, and the steam evolution is only sustained by
the heal energy continually supplied from beneath, the steam current through the
channel is so much weakened that it is not able to keep the passage through the
channel free.

The barriers of water formed as described, in bends and narrow passages of
the principal spring channel, can then remain stationary, as long as there is a
perceptible stoppage of the steam current through the channel. But as soon as the
steam current is stopped, the water will also fill other parts of the channel, from
which water has previously been excluded by the steam. The increase of the
water pressure then becomes greater than the increase of the steam pressure from
below. As a result the water column recedes downwards through tlie channel,
enters the cavities of the spring, and fills up the whole of the space formerly
occupied by the steam. The steam is unable to resist, on account of the pressure
of water being so great and the tension of the vapour becoming less through the
decrease in temperature caused by the entrance of colder water from above into
the cavities. The eruption is now ended, ^yhich event is marked by the water
from tlie basin rushing down into the channel.

We have noticed that the spring gas, saturated with steam, which is con-
tinually supplied to the spring from below, cannot force its way in the form of
bubbles through the water in the spring channel, without producing a decrease in
the pressure of the water, and thus causing an eruption. In exactly the same way,
the eruption is brought to a close through the steam current kept up by the con-
stant supply of energy to the spring becoming insufficient to keep the spring free
of water stoppages, which block the passage of the steam current through the
channel.

This is, in my opinion, the principal cause of the periodic eruptions of the
thermal springs. Of course, very hot water, by suddenly boiling, may also cause
an eruption, as many of the geyser models show, but it occurs very seldom in
nature. On the whole, it is hardly pi'obably that the spring water can be super-
heated to any extent, because it is, in almost every case, impregnated with spring gas.
In those cases where hot springs are found with a temperature a little higher than

63 241

the boiling pointât that elevation, it is more probably due to the substances dissolved
in the spring water and too strong a heat supply from heated steam, than to the
tendencj' of the spring water to become superheated.

That the channels be crooked, can no longer be regarded as a necessary
condition of the intermittance or periodicity of the springs, for the latter, as
already mentioned, could easily be in a constant stale of ebullition, even though
their channels are crooked. On the other hand the irregularity of Hie channels
may in several different ways influence the progress and character of the eruptions
of the periodic springs; they tend especially to shorten the eruption, as the water
is collected in the bends, and forms stoppages to the steam current through the
channel.

It is evident that special circumstances in the individual springs may greatly
influence the character and period of the eruptions. In most of the springs there
is a cup-shaped hollow at the place where the spring channel reaches the surface.
Owing to the rapid loss of heat at the surface, the spring water gathering in this
hollow is kept considerably cooler than the water deeper down in the channel.
The rapidity of the loss of heat at the surface is evidenced by the temperature
measurements made by Bunsen and Descloizeaux at "Störi Geysir" and Strokkur.
This is also borne out by our measurements of the temperature of the water at
the surface and at the bottom of Basaliver and Vai^malahver at Grafarbakki.

During the eruption, the steam current from the orifices in the bottom of the
basin is generally so strong that the channel below is kept free from the cold sur-
face water in the basin, but if the steam current is stopped for a moment, or
weakened to any extent, the surface water runs down into the channel.

In many cases this will result in the entire cessation of the eruption, because
the pressure produced by the water is increased, at the same time as the tension
of the vapour is decreased on account of the temperature in the channel being
lowered by the cold water.

At Grafarbakki and, generally speaking, in most of the spring groups that
contain periodic geysers, there are constantly boiling springs and periodic geysers
side by side. Hence it is evident that two entirely independent channels are often
found side by side in the earth. It is therefore quite possible that two or more
really independent channels may be united to one channel beneath the surface of
the earth. Only one of these channels being capable of causing periodic eruptions,
suffices to render the spring itself periodic.

In the case of several geysers, the eruption takes place in all the channels at
once, for as soon as the eruption in one of the channels has relieved the pressure
due to the water column in the common channel, the decrease of the pressure will
give rise to an eruption in the other channels. With other geysers the decrease
of the pressure is not sufficient to cause an eruption in the remaining channels,
and as an interesting medium between these two extremities, we have geysers
where the eruption in the remaining channels only takes place when the eruption

242 64

in the first channel is extraordinarily intense, while they remain passive when the
eruption is less intense. This is undoubtedly the case with many geysers which
have two kinds of eruptions. They must be provided with two or more channels
beneath the surface of the earth.

Another reason for two different kinds of eruptions taking place in the same
geyser will be mentioned later, [in the dissertation on the eruptions of "Störi
Geysir."

Where violent eruptions take place the spring gas and the vapour in the
channels are subjected to great pressure previous to the eruption. The walls of
the channels must therefore be very strong, in order to sustain this great pressure.
Where the soil is loose and disintegrated, the spring gas makes new passages as
soon as the old ones are stopped up. In these localities therefore no great erup-
tion can take place. This is evidently the principal reason for the scarcity of
geysers where the spring gas contains large quantities of sulphuretted hydrogen.
For the soil surrounding the sulphurous springs is always disintegrated.

In some geysers, Grvla for instance, the real eruption is succeeded by a steam
jet period. This is most readily explained by assuming that the form of the spring
channel is comparatively regular, so that the steam can easily drive the whole of
the water out of the channel. Besides this, the supply of hot water which produces
the steam cannot enter into the channel during the eruption. When the spring
has spent its accumulated energy, and the steam power is consequently on the
decrease, the vapours in the channel become condensed and stop the flow of steam
out of the geyser.

Finally, I will mention somewhat more exhaustively a particular type of periodic
spring, namely, the great hot water basins, which evolve gas periodically. The
periodicity of these springs is not easily apparent on the surface. The steam and
gas bubbles which are periodically ejected from the small holes at the bottom of
the basin, diminish very rapidly as soon as they come into contact with the water
in the basin, which is kept cooler on account of the evaporation from its large
exposed surface.

These eruptions may therefore appropriately be termed subterranean erup-
tions, inasmuch as their energy is exhausted before they reach the surface.

The periodicity of these springs is easily explained in the same way as in
the previous instance. The steam How is not strong enough to keep the water in
the basin out of the channels, and by the time the water has entered the channels
and hindered or completely stopped the outflow of spring gas, the spring has
accumulated sufficient energy to expel it again.

This class of hot spring claims more attention, inasmuch as "Störi Geysir"
must be considered as belonging to it. For besides its characteristic large eruptions,
"Störi Geysir" has also small eruptions with regular periods. These small, or as
BuNSEN has called them, unsuccessful eruptions, are, like the larger eruptions,
accompanied by subterranean detonations. Water and spring gases flow with such

65 243

velocity through the geyser channel, that it causes the water to rise in the shape
of a cone on the surface. These small eruptions are called "flöils" in Icelandic,
owing to the increase in the amount of water flowing away. These "flöös" are
subterranean eruptions, only much more powerful than similar eruptions in the
large hot water basins. The geyser channel, with its large funnel-shaped basin,
plays a similar part to the water basins in choking the eruptions. The circulation
of the water in the geyser channel is generally able to keep the temperature suffic-
iently low, so that the bubbles of steam condense on coming from the side chan-
nels. Occasionally, however, either on account of the subterranean eruptions being
more powerful, or because the loss of heat is less than usual, the steam bubbles
are able to fill up the whole width of the channel and raise the entire water
column, thus occasioning a large eruption.

The pressure of the water column in the geyser channel is for the most part
suspended during the larger eruptions. The energy accumulated in the side chan-
nels has then more freedom to spend its strength than in the smaller eruptions
("flöös"), where the subterranean forces have to work under the pressure of the
water in the channel.

One can now understand that the period of inaction after a large eruption is
about twice as long as after a small one. ' For, after a long eruption, a far greater
supply of energy and spring gas must be conveyed to the side channels and their
cavities in order to enable them to produce a new eruption, than after a small one.

At ÖskurhüU we noticed that the steam emissions varied in strength. We
could not make a closer investigation of the periodicity of the steam emissions,
but there is little doubt that ÖskurhöU must be reckoned amongst the periodic
springs. Small subterranean eruptions, either in the principal channel or, more
probably, in one of the side channels, would be sufficient to account for the
periodicity of the steam emissions. But it is nevertheless not impossible that
ÖskurhöU is in communication with one of the adjacent geysers, so that the varia-
tions in the steam emissions might be due to influences from another spring.

Many attempts have been made to construct models to show in miniature
the mechanism of the geyser phenomena.' It seems to me, however, hardly pro-
bable that we can with these apparatuses make even an approach to the actual
conditions. In my opinion, the only thing which the geyser models have proved
with sufficient clearness, is that the relation of the width of the channel to the
steam evolution on the one hand, and the loss of heat in the channel on the otherj
is one of the chief causes of the intermittence or periodicity. But as to the part the
spring gases play in the eruption, very little information is to he gathered from
the geyser models. However, as stated, the relation between the spring gases and
the width of the channel is evidently the chief cause of the periodicity.

1 Descloizeaux: Ann. d. Chem. 3rd. Series, 19, 456, 1847.

' Full details of previous papers on Geyser Models are to be found in a paper by J. A. Andreae ,^*r
in "Neues Jahrbuch der Mineralogi", 1893, Vol. 11, p. 1. Manj- models are described in this paper. /^Js^

D. K. 1). Vidcnsk. Selsk. Skr.. 7. Hække, naturvidensk. og malhem. AW. VHI. 4. 32

244 66

On the basis of the preceding remarks we can sum up tlie conditions of the
periodic eruptions as follows.

A mixture of hot water and spring gases saturated with vapour is conveyed
through the spring channel, which we must assume to be situated in solid strata,
and to be well defined, at least in the upper part, i. e. near the surface of the earth.

If the gas bubbles, while a state of equilibrium rules, do not cause the water
pressure to decrease on their way up the channel, we have then a continually
ebullient spring.

If, on the other hand, the gas bubbles, while the spring is in a state of
equilibrium, would produce a decrease in the pi-essure, especially by filling out
parts of the channel, the spring is periodic.

In the latter instance, the surface tension, and adhesion, will be of considerable
consequence, especially in regard to the size of the gas bubbles.

The constantly boiling springs are therefore hot springs with a fixed equili-
brium, while the periodic springs have no fixed equilibrium. I understand that a
spring has attained its state of equilibrium, when the flow of water, steam and
spring gases, passing through the channels of the spring, becomes constant, and
the temperature in all parts of the channels has also become constant.

We have assumed that water is conveyed through the spring channels, for
that is a necessary condition of the periodic springs. Where no water is to be
found in the spring channel, an eruption can hardly take place. But it is suffi-
cient if there is water in the upper part of the spring channel. In this connection
it matters little if there is only steam farther down the channel, for the cause of
the eruption is only to be sought in the parts of the channel where there is water.

In the theory of the periodicity of the hot springs, it is immaterial whether
we assume that the heat energy is supplied by steam or by highly heated water
which, on account of the great pressure to which it is subjected, cannot boil and
evaporate. But, in my opinion, the heat energy is most probably supplied by
highly heated steam and spring gas. Direct proofs of this are not forthcoming,
but there are many things that seem to indicate that it is correct: amongst others,
that I have never been able to detect any radium worth mentioning in the sedi-
ments or mud of the springs; and since radium emanation is always found in the
exhalations of the springs, either the spring water or the steam must have been in
contact with radium. If it were the spring water, it would dissolve a little radium,
and carry it in this manner up to the earth's surface, where it ought to be found
in the deposits of the springs, as is the case with many springs in Italy and
France.

But this is not the case with any of the hot springs I have investigated in
Iceland. This is most probably on account of the spring water having, somewhere
down under the earth's surface, passed into a state of vapour, and thus being
hindered from conveying any ladium. On the other hand the vapour must con-

67 245

dense again at a considerable depth, for otherwise the spring water would hardly
be able to convey such large quantities of dissolved substances as it actually does.

The surface temperature of the spring water is dependent on several different
factors. Some of these are of a more individual character, in that they are con-
trolled by the form and nature of the spring. The loss of heat to the surroundings,
— whether it is produced by heat conduction from the spring channel or by
evaporation from the surface of the water, can be considered among these. The
differences in the temperature of springs situated in the same group are chiefly
due to these circumstances. There are two other factors likely to be of importance
with regard to the temperature of the spring water, which may be supposed to be
almost identical in springs belonging to the same group. These factors are the
heat supply from below and the loss of heat caused by boiling.

At Reykir in Skagafjöröur the first of these is the most important factor. The
intensity of the heat supply is evidently much less there than at the other places
explored. As the highest temperature measured at Reykir was only 68° C, the
water in the depth of the earth cannot possibly have as high a temperature as
at the other places.

At the other places investigated, the temperature down in the earth is un-
doubtedly considerably higher than 100° C. We know that the temperature in the
depth of the earth must be over 100^ C, otherwise the steam in these springs would
not possess sufficient power to consummate an eruption. The highest temperature
measured by Bunsen and Descloizeaux at the bottom of a geyser channel was
127° C.

When the temperature of the spring water is nearly at boiling point, which
is the case at most of the places we explored, the surface temperature is very little
influenced by variations in the supply of heat energy. In such cases, the circum-
stances of cooling, and, foremost among these, the ebullition, are of the greatest
importance with regard to the temperature of the spring.

The ebullition of the springs is dependent on the standing of the barometer,
on the amount of substances dissolved in the spring water and on the volume of
the spring gases. The dissolved substances raise the boiling point of the water. It
cannot yet be decided how much this amounts to in the case of spring water, as
no measurements to this end are available, but probably it only amounts to a
small fraction of a degree. Setting this aside, we calculate, in the fourth column
of Table I , the boiling point of distilled water, corresponding to the respective
height of the barometer. It appears from this table that the boiling point thus
calculated is higher throughout than the temperature of the spring.

The bubbles rising up through the water are not filled only with vapour, as
by ordinary boiling, but with a mixture of vapour and spring gas, and it is the
combined pressure of the vapour and the spring gases that withstands the atmos-
pheric pressure. Assuming that the bubbles are saturated with vapour having the
same temperature as the spring, the relation between the spring gases and the

32-

246 68

vapour can easily be calculated, provided that the height of the barometer and the
temperature of the water are known. Hence it follows that, in the case of two
springs with the same temperature and at the same pressure of the atmosphere,
the spring that evolves the greater volume ot gas in proportion to the volume of
water, will lose the greater amount of heal by ebullition. For in this case the
evaporation is proportional to the volume of the spring gases.

As a rule, the spring gas augments the evaporation of the spring water, and
thus contributes to keep its temperature below boiling point. The loss of heat
consequent on boiling is therefore greater in springs evolving much gas than in
springs with slight gas evolution.

A glance at the temperature of the hot springs investigated, shows that springs
in the same locality have practically the same, temperature. In most cases where
considerable divergencies from this rule occur, a direct observation of the springs
on the spot will show that these divergencies are due to some special peculiarities
in regard to the process of cooling.

Springs in the same locality not only resemble each other as regards their
temperature, but in the composition of their spring gases, as Table I shows. The
same may be said in regard to the amount of emanation contained in the gas.

All this seems to indicate that springs in the same locality have a common
source, or at least originate under similar conditions. The well-known fact, that
the hot springs are always found in fissures in the earth's crust confirms this. At
Reykir, (Plate II b), at Grafarbakki, (Plate VII b), and at Reykjafoss, (Plate IX a), it is
noticeable that the principal springs are situated almost in a straight line, showing the
direction of the fissures. Where the surface of the earth is much disintegrated, as
it is around the solfataras, it is not so noticeable that the hot springs are confined
to fissures. Every visible sign of the fissures is destroyed by the disintegration of
the surface, and the hot springs find their outlets at the lowest places possible.

Our knowledge of the processes taking place in the depth of the earth, where
the real source of the energy of the springs is situated, is very slight, and the
available methods of investigation very limited, in that we are almost exclusively
confined to the study of the exhalations of the springs, viz. the steam, the spring
gases and the radioactive emanations.

As far as I know, no analyses of spring gases from the places I investigated
have been made, except Bunsens' and O. T. Christensen's" analyses of spring
gases from the hot springs in the vicinity of Myvatn. I have already pointed out
that many hot springs have changed in the course of time. The mention of these
changes served particularly to illustrate the action of the hot springs on the outer
crust of the earth, and the influence of meteorological conditions and earthquakes
on the thermal activity of the springs.

The matter has another aspect, if one considers the change in the composition

' Pogg. Ann. 83; p. 238. 1851.

2 Tidsskrift for Pliysik og Oiemie. 10, p. 225. 1889.

69 247

of the gases from the same spring. If the composition of the spring gases is
changed in the course of time, then we have reason to suppose that a corre-
sponding change has taken place in the depth of the earth, where the spring has
its origin.

For the purpose of comparison, I quote here Christensen's analyses of samples
of spring gases collected by Johnstrup at Krafla in the summer of 1871.

Table

IV.

III

S/Zg "lo

5.89

13.94

14.55

CO2 "/o

68.80

63.52

71.99

H^o/o

15.59

11.71

9.30

iV, 0/0

9.72

10.83

4.16

We see at once that the last of Johnstrup's gas samples, (III), has almost
exactly the same composition as one of mine. The other two have a somewhat
more divergent composition, which is chiefly due to a comparatively large increase
in the amount of nitrogen. This suggests that these samples originate from springs
where the soil is particularly porous, and that a little atmospheric air has therefore
mingled with the spring gas.

Unfortunately, however, there is no detailed description of the springs from
which the gas samples originate, in Johnstrup's and Christensen's papers. Any
conclusions drawn from a comparison of my analyses with those of Christensen
may therefore be to some extent uncertain. My two samples of gas show a con-
siderable divergence in their composition, although they originate from two very
similar hot springs, the distance between them being only about 20 m. Nevertheless
it is confirmed with sufficient accuracy by the analyses quoted, that the spring
gases at Krafla have undergone very little change, if any, in the period 1871 — 1906.

We might expect that the gases evolved by the hot springs at Namafjall,
situated about 10 km. south of Krafla, would very closely resemble the gases
evolved by the hot springs at Krafla. The outward appearance of the springs is
in many respects similar, and the geological conditions indicate that the springs
originate from the same source.

It was during the long period of volcanic eruptions 1722 — 1729, when Helvi'ti
was a very active ash-crater, and when the great line of craters at Leirhnji'ikur, a
short distance west of Helviti, emerged and threw up an immense quantity of lava,
that the active craters in Bjarnarflag, west of NamaQall, also came into existence,
(see Fig. 2).

All this seems to indicate that the hot springs at Krafla and at Namafjall
must be in connection with each other. Nevertheless the composition of the spring
gases at Namafjall differs essentially from that of the spring gases at Krafla. The
great amount of hj'drogen in the former is especially conspicuous.

248 70

These gases have also some interest in other respects.

In the following table I have collected the analyses within my knowledge of
spring gases from Namafjall.

Table V.

Bunsen

Christensen

Th. Thorkelsson

(1845)

(1876)

(1871)

(187«)

(1906)

H^S'Vo

24.12

26.32

15.78

19.26

21.75

2.2

18.4

CO, «/o

50.00

59.24

44.97

52.00

48.25

37.5

30.0

H 2 "/o

25.14

7.94

25.49

27.02

28.03

54.4

49.0

ATjö/o

0.72

6.50

13.76

1.72

1.97

5.9

2.6

It appears from this table that a slight change in the composition of the gas
took place between 1845 and 1871, the amount of hydrogen becoming a little
greater. This change seems to have developed along the same lines with surprising
rapidity during the years 1871 and 1906. My gas samples from Namafjall show
the greatest amount of hydrogen that has been found in gases evolved by the hot
springs of Iceland. As already emphasized, one must exercise great care in drawing
conclusions from changes in the composition of the spring gases, but as the mud
pools at Namafjall are grouped together within three well-defined areas, one of
which it is not possible to approach, and the spring gases in each of these three
groups of springs have in all essentials the same composition, we shall not be far
wrong in assuming that the alterations in the composition of the spring gases,
shown in the above table, correspond fairly well to the actual conditions.

Of course the few results given cannot help us to determine whether the
alterations have taken place suddenly or as the result of a gradual process.

Assuming that Bunsen's theory regarding the process of the formation of
hydrogen and sulphuretted hydrogen in the springs is correct, Christensen ' ex-
presses his opinion that the increase of hydrogen must be regarded as a sign that
the spring gases have been highly heated. If this be so, we must suppose that
the terrestrial heat at Namafjall is on the increase. However, comparing my ob-
servations of the terrestrial heat at Namafjall with previous descriptions of the
locality, I have been unable to find the least sign of such an increase in the
thermal activity on the earth's surface. -

With regard to their composition, the spring gases from Kerlingarfjöll and
Hengill most closely resemble the gases evolved by the hot springs at Myvatn,
especially on account of the large quantities of hydrogen. The analyses of the
gases from the hot springs at Kerlingarfjöll and Hengill harmonize very closely

' loc. cit. p. 242.

- I have since learnt that tlie hihabitants of the district at Myvatn are of tlie opinion that tlie
tliermal activity really is increasing.

71 249

with each other, having on an average a volume of about 71 ";» of carbon dioxide
and 26 "lu of sulphuretted hydrogen plus hydrogen gas. One of the gas samples
from Hengill lias a slightly greater percentage of carbon dioxide but the spring
from which this sample was taken differed in other respects also from the
surrounding springs. The gas sample Krafla No. 2 is also consistent with spring
gases of this type, and as one of Christensen's gas samples is of a similar
composition, one has reason to suppose that spring gases with about 71 "/o of carbon
dioxide and about 26 "/u of sulphuretted hydrogen plus hydrogen gas, are common
among the Icelandic solfataras and mud pools.

In spring gases of this type, the amount of sulphuretted hydrogen and of
hydrogen gas, taken separately, may each vary considerably, but taken as a whole,
the percentage of the volume of these two gases is fairly constant. In his remarks
on the spring gases from Krafla, Christensen mentions that an increase in the
amount of sulphuretted hydrogen is attended by a decrease of the amount of
hydrogen gas. It appears thererefore that the sulphuretted hydrogen and the
hydrogen are closely related to each other in the spring gases. Christensen is of
tbe opinion that an easy explanation of this is found in Bunsen's theory of the
process of formation of hydrogen and sulphuretted hydrogen in the hot springs,
viz. that the sulphuretted hydrogen originally formed disunites according to the
formula SHn = Hr, + S. Thus, a molecule of hydrogen gas is formed by the de-
composition of every molecule of sulphuretted hydrogen.

The hydrogen liberated by the decomposition of the sulphuretted hydrogen
does not therefore combine with other substances. As the relation between the
volume of the carbon dioxide and the sum of the volumes of hydrogen gas and
sulphuretted hydrogen is practically constant in this kind of spring gases, it appears
probable from the above that there is a certain connection between the carbon
dioxide and the sulphuretted hydrogen before its dissociation.

Taking into account the laws of chemical equilibrium, we perceive that the
cause of the relation which exists between the two gases is either that they are
produced in the same place, and consequently under the same chemical and physical
conditions, or else that the one gas has liberated the other by acting on its chemical
compounds. For it is highly improbable that two gases produced independently
in two difTerent places should be found mixed in the same proportion in several
separate localities. The possibility that sulphuretted hydrogen, more or less dis-
sociated, should always liberate carbon dioxide in the same proportion to the sum
of the volumes of hydrogen gas and sulphuretted hydrogen, can hardly be con-
sidered, as it does not harmonize with the laws of chemical equilibrium.

In mj' opinion , the foregoing experimental data seem to indicate that the
three gases, carbon dioxide, hydrogen and sulphuretted hydrogen, are produced at
the same time and by the same physical and chemical processes.

The conditions of the production of these gases must consequently be the
same over vast stretches of Iceland. Most probably the source of gas evolution is

250 72

to be found in the flowing mass, the fluid lava or magma in the interior of the
earth, the gas evolution being either the result of the action of the mass on the
solid crust of the earth, or else being produced through the gases originally ab-
sorbed in the mass being released as the pressure lessens.

It is evident that when the conditions of the gas evolution are fixed, the
gases evolved must have a fixed proportion to each other. At the moment of pro-
duction, the carbon dioxide, the hydrogen and the sulphuretted hydrogen appear to
be in the proportion 71 : 11.5 : 14.5. As these three gases are very liable to combine
with other substances, it is not surprising that the proportion between them is not
very constant at the earth's surface. Sulphuretted hydrogen particularly is a very
unstable gas, and this is doubtless the reason why the volume of this gas is more
liable to variation than that of the two other gases, (carbon dioxide and hydrogen).

In this class of spring gases carbon dioxide, hydrogen gas and sulphuretted
hydrogen constitute nearly 97 "/o of the whole volume. Hence it follows that a
decrease in one of these gases must be attended by a corresponding increase in
the combined volume of the other two.

The remainder of the spring gas, amounting to 3 "/o of the entire volume,
consists chiefly of nitrogen, and is undoubtedly mostly due to the intermixture of
foreign gases of atmospheric origin. The real spring gases in the solfataras and
similar hot springs, i. e. the spring gases of which the production is so closely
connected with the thermal activity of these springs, are therefore almost exclusively
composed of hydrogen gas, carbon dioxide and sulphuretted hydrogen, the remaining
gases being treated as a negligible quantity, their percentage being so small. A
rise in the percentage of one of these three gases is therefore not so much due to
an absolute increase of the gas in question, as to a decrease in the other two gases
on account of destruction and absorption.

The analyses of the spring gases from Kerlingarfjöll and Hengill show that
these gases contain some traces of methane, and ditïer in this respect from the
spring gases at Myvatn, which contain no hydrocarbon. The gas samples from
Hveravellii', Grafarhakki, Laugaras and Reykjafoss also contain a little methane.

According to my analyses methane must be a rather common constituent of
the Icelandic spring gases, although it is nowhere found in large quantities. This
does not, however, agree with the results obtained by other analysts. Bunsen in
particular states emphatically that he has not been able to find hydrocarbon in
any of the spring gases, although he considers that with his instruments he would
have been able to detect even a tenth per cent of methane, had it been in any of
the samples. The apparatus I used for the analysis being provided with stop
cocks, it was not absolutely impossible that the methane came from the grease
used for lubricating. I therefore made, in the middle of my analysis work, some
experiments with atmospheric air, treating it in the same way as the gas samples
under investigation. But in this case no methane could be traced. Another proof
experiment was carried out in the following manner. After having proved that a

73 251

gas sample from Laugaràs only contained nitrogen, inert gases and methane, I mixed
a known volume of the same gas sample with a little atmospheric air and a suit-
able amount of oxygen and hydrogen in chemically equivalent proportions and
then exploded the gas mixture. A subsequent examination of the gas remaining
from the explosion showed the same result as regards the methane. Immediately
after this I treated an equal volume of atmospheric air in exactly the same manner,
without detecting the slightest trace of methane. The view that the methane found
in the spring gas samples is not entirely due to erroneous methods in the analysis
work is further confirmed by the fact that the investigation of the gas samples
containing methane was twice interrupted by the examination of the gas samples
from Reykir. In these samples I could never find any traces of methane. The
gas samples from the hot springs at Myvatn, on the other hand, were examined in
the beginning of the analysis work. When one considers that several of the gas
samples Investigated were proved to contain no methane, it can hardly be con-
tended that the methane found in the remaining samples is due to awkwardness
in collecting the gas, or in fusing the collecting bottle.

On the other hand, the method I employed is under a disadvantage, as com-
pared with that used by Bunsen, in that the gas under investigation often comes
into contact with organic substances, the indiarubber tubing, and the grease on
the stop-cocks. It is therefore, in my opinion, more probable that where very
small quantities of methane are found, — i. e. only a few thousandths of the entire
volume of the gas examined, — it is on account of erroneous treatment of the gas
sample, rather than that methane is really a constituent of the original spring gas.
But where methane is found in larger quantities as, for instance, in the gas
samples from Hveravellir, I consider it quite impossible that this should be due
exclusively to errors in analysis. In these cases methane is really contained in
the spring gases.

The existence of methane may be explained as follows. The spring water,
or at least a part of it, comes from swampy ground, and it is a well-known fact
that methane is produced in such places by fermentative processes in organic
matter. In this way the water conveys the methane to the interior of the earth,
where it is mingled with the other spring gases.

Three of the gas samples from Reykjafoss are, as regards their composition,
most closely allied to the class of spring gases represented by the gas samples
from Hengill, Kerlingarfjöll and Krafla. But this might have been expected, for
the hot springs at Reykjafoss and Hengill may really be considered as one group
of hot springs, which stretches from Reykjafoss right through to Hengill. The
small quantity of nitrogen found in the spring gases from Reykjafoss indicates
that they are only slightly mixed with atmospheric nitrogen and other gases of
atmospheric origin. The amount of hydrogen gas and, to some extent, of
sulphuretted hydrogen, is less than at Hengill, while the percentage of carbon

I). K. D. Vi(Jeiisk. Selsk. Skr., 7. Hække, naturvidensk. og niatheni. Aid. VIII. -i. tJ3

252 74

dioxide naturally becomes greater. This has probably some relation to the fact
that the thermal activity at Reykjafoss is not so intense as at Hengill.

The gas sample Reykjafoss No. 1 is quite different to the three others, and
shows clearly that the spring gas in question is mixed with atmospheric air.
Calculating how much air is mingled with the original spring gas, we find that
about 2'/3 volumes of air are mixed with one volume of the original spring gas.
In this calculation I have assumed that the spring gas has originally had the same
composition as the three other gas samples from Reykjafoss, and also that no
carbon dioxide has been lost by intermixture or on ils way to the surface of the
earth. One observes that the proportion between the nitrogen and the oxygen is
very different from that in the atmosphere, in that the greater part of the oxygen
in the spring gas has disappeared, i. e. entered into 'chemical combinations in the
interior of the earth.

As the spring from which the gas sample Reykjafoss No. 1 comes is also a periodic
alkaline spring, it is very probable that the intermixture of atmospheric air with the
spring gases has some connection with the periodicity of the hot springs. The
spring gases from Hveravellir supply evidence to confirm this. For one is doubt-
less quite safe in concluding that the oxygen and the comparatively large amount
of nitrogen in these spring gases are of atmospheric origin, while the carbon dioxide
and the small quantities of sulphuretted hydrogen and hydrogen gas may be
regarded as remnants of the original spring gas, which has probably had a similar
composition to the spring gases from Kerlingarfjöll and Hengill.

According to the analyses before us, the spring gases from Hveravellir may
be divided into two groups.

One is represented by the two gas samples : Hveravellir Nos. 2 and 25, which
come from hot springs apparently not periodic, situated in the north-west part of
the spring district. The three other samples, i. e. Nos. 10, 27 and 16 belong to the
second group, all coming from periodic springs.

These gas samples are distinguished from the two first mentioned by the
great amount of nitrogen they contain in comparison with carbon dioxide and by
a considerable quantity of oxygen. Taking it for granted that the oxygen and the
nitrogen are of atmospheric origin, this shows that the spring gas in periodic
springs has received a greater contribution of air than that in the non-periodic
springs. The connection between the periodicity of the springs and the amount
of atmospheric gases in the spring gas is here shown very clearly. It is most prob-
able that the periodicity of the springs is a direct cause of the intermixture of
air with spring gases.

The hot spring No. 12 at Hveravellir will perhaps be the means of throwing
considerable light on this subject. When p. Thoroddsen visited Hveravellir in the
summer of 1884, this spring was found to be periodic. In the summer of 1906 the
basin was occasionally filled with tranquil water, but generally it was quite dry,
and showed no signs of activity. As far as I know, this spring did not once spout

253

during our stay at Hveravellir. If this be so, the spring water must have found
another outlet. The water standing in the old channel would then rise or sink
according to the pressure prevailing in the water in the earth below. It is quite
possible that similar channels are found in many places in the neiglil)ourhoüd of
the periodic springs, although they are not yet discovered, as Ihe water in such
channels does not necessarily reach up to the surface of the earth.

It is not difficult to perceive that a natural channel of a similar form to that
shown in Fig. 15 may suffice to explain how the air is mixed with the spring
gases, provided that the channel has suitable dimensions.

We may assume that the channel b is at the beginning entirely filled with
water. When the pressure down in the earth is reduced, the water recedes down
the channel, and as soon
as the surface of the water
has fallen as low as the
bend, the atmospheric air,
forcing its way through
the water, enters the re-
servoir B, where it is stored
up, and also in the upper
part of the channel c.
When the pressure below
increases again, the water
rises in the channels b
and c, and expels the air
from them; but the air
remains in the reservoir B.
By the subsequent reduc-
tion of the pressure in d,
the air in B is forced
down the channel c by
the pressure of the water
column in the channel b.
Supposing d to be in
communication with the
channel of a geyser, the
periodic variations of the
pressure in the gej'ser
channel will be sufficient
to produce the required variations in the pressure in the channel d.

Inasmuch as channels similar to that shown in Fig. 15 are undoubtedly very
common, especially in periodic springs, one can readily understand that when such
a channel falls into inactivity on account of the spring water finding an outlet on
a lower level, it is very likely that the vacant channel serves as a kind of pumping

33*

l-isi. 1,-,.

254 76

apparatus to pump the air down into the subterranean cavities, where it mixes
with the original spring gases.

The air decomposes the sulphuretted hydrogen in the spring gases, and thus
prevents the destructive effect of this gas on the rocks. In this way the inter-
mixture of the air with the spring gases perhaps serves to uphold the periodicity
of the springs. On the other hand, the oxygen will doubtless affect the solubility
of the rocks in spring water containing carbonic acid. The characteristic deposits
of silica at Hveravellir have possibly some connection with the comparatively lai'ge
quantity of oxygen in the spring gases there.

1 have assumed that the relatively large amount of nitrogen in the spring
gases from Hveravellir and in Reykjafoss No. 1 is of atmospheric origin. I cannot,
however, adduce direct proofs of this supposition, but it seems to me that the pre-
sence of nitrogen in the spi'ing gases is readily and naturally explained in this
manner; and the oxygen in the spring gases bears evidence to the same effect.

BuNSEN went still further. ' It was his opinion that the nitrogen in the Ice-
landic spring gases was entirely of atmospheric origin. But when we take into
consideration the fact that the spring gas at several places, (at Reykir. at Laugaras
and, generally speaking, at Grafarbakki) consists solely of nitrogen, it is open to
question whether all this nitrogen really originated from the asmosphere, and by
what means the soil is enabled to retain the atmospheric oxygen so that not a
trace of it is to be found in the spring gases.

Before my journey to Iceland, I did not know that such nitrous springs
existed in that country." However, I considered the question of the origin of
nitrogen in the spring gases of so great importance, that I decided to make a closer
investigation on the point. I thought that a determination of the proportions in
which argon and nitrogen are found in the spring gases would most probably give
a decisive answer to this question, because it was very improbable that these
gases would combine with other substances. But Ramsay's^ investigations have
since indicated the probability of argon being produced by radio active substances
under certain conditions, and the determination of the proportion between argon
and nitrogen in the spring gases can therefore only give reliable information
concerning the origin of the nitrogen, in the event of the amount of argon being
smaller, in comparison with the nitrogen, than in the atmosphere. In this case,
however, it is most probable that some of the nitrogen is due to chemical pro-
cesses down in the earth, for at present we know no instance of argon combining
with other substances.

> Liebigs Ann. 62, 5. 1847.

2 I have since noticed that Bunsen, (Gasometrische Methoden, 2. Aufl. 1877, p. 78). has made an
analysis of an Icelandic spring gas whicli consists cliiefly of nitrogen, (99-48 "In nitrogen, 052 "In hydrogen).
As this spring gas is stated to have come from a small group of liot springs to the nortli of "Mælifell",
it probably originates from the spring group "Reykir in Sliagafjöröur".

' Nature. 1907. p. 269.

77 255

In the following table, the volume of the argon in some spring gases is
referred to in the second column in the percentage of the entire volume of nitrogen
plus argon. In the 3rd. and 4lh. columns the percentage of helium plus neon is
given respectively in proportion to the nitrogen plus argon and to the argon plus
helium.

Table VI.

Argon,
Gas sample in percentage of

Nitrogen + Argon

Reykir No. 1 1-50 "h

Reykir No. 2 1-63 -

Reykir No. 5 164 -

Hveravellir No. 2 . . . 1-75 -

Hveravellir No. 25 . . 210 -

Grafarbakki No. 1 . . 1-83 -

Grafarbakki No. 2 . . 230 -

Laugaras No. 1 194 -

Laugaras No. 3 211 -

Reykjafoss No. 1 ... 1-96 -

Hengill No. 1 0-63 -

Hengill No. 3 221 -

As could be expected, this table throws little light on the origin of nitrogen

rr,, .■ volume of argon . ,i . 1 1

in the spring gases. The proportion — -, ^ -, ^ ^ is, as the table

f ° ° ^ '^ volume of nitrogen -j- argon

shows, with one exception always greater in the spring gases examined than in
the atmosphere. The gas sample Hengill No. 1 proved to have only half as much
argon in proportion to nitrogen as the atmosphere. From this fact one deduces
that a great deal of the nitrogen in the hot spring in question originates from the
soil, or from the seat of the thermal activity of the spring. Another gas sample
from the same district, i. e. Hengill No. 3, shows, however, quite a different pro-
portion between argon and nitrogen. But unfortunately this gas sample was mixed
with the atmosphere. I corrected the final result by determining the amount of
oxygen in the gas sample used in the investigation, and calculated from this how
much atmospheric nitrogen and argon corresponded to the oxygen found. The
volumes of nitrogen and argon thus calculated were then subtracted from those
directly measured by the experiment, in order to find the volumes of argon and
nitrogen originally in the spring gases. Of course all this tended to make the final
determination of the volume of argon in this sample rather uncertain. 1 therefore
attach less weight to this result, especially as it is not in harmony with the
measurements of the gas sample Hengill No. 1, which are, in my opinion, quite
trustworthy.

Helium,

in percentage

in percentage of

Nitrogen + Argon

Argon -|- Helium

0-0132 o/o

0-88 7o

00140 -

0-87 -

00146 -

0-97 -

00298 -

1-67 -

00302 -

1-42 -

00114 -

0-62 -

00110 -

0-48 -

00105 -

0-55 -

00148 -

0-75 -

00326 -

4-76 -

00511 -

231 -

256 78

In other respects the measurements of argon and helium-neon show con-
siderable harmony in gas samples from the same spring group, and tliis may be
considered as a guarantee of the accuracy of the methods employed.

Table VI shows that the relation between the argon and the nitrogen con-
tained in the spring gases is fairly constant in the samples from Reykir, Laugaras,
Grafarbakki and Hveravellir, and in the sample Reykjafoss No. 1, being in each
case a little greater than in the atmosphère.

I have already shown that it is probable that the nitrogen contained in the
gas samples from Hveravellir and Reykjafoss No. 1 is of atmospheric origin ; one
is, therefore, well within the bounds of reason in concluding that in the spring
gases from Reykir, Grafarbakki and Laugaras it is also of atmospheric origin. The
surplus of argon in the spring gases may therefore be ascribed partly to the
greater absorption of argon in water, and partly to the destruction of nitrogen in
the soil.

The fluctuations in the amount of helium-neon in the spring gases are much
less than I had expected. One can hardly form a true conception of the amount
of helium in the spring gases from the table, for the proportion between the helium
and neon varies considerably. For instance, the spectroscopic examination of the
helium-neon mixtures from Reykir, Laugaras and Grafarbakki showed a fairly in-
tense spectrum of neon as compared with the spectrum due to helium, while no
lines due to neon were visible in the spectrum of Hengill No. \. The fluctuations
in the amount of helium are doubtless much greater, therefore, than Table VI
shows. On the other hand the measurements do not indicate any parallel between
the amount of radium emanation and helium.

I have also endeavoured to trace xenon and krypton in argon gas from the
spring gases. For this purpose I used the same apparatus as for the separation of
the helium-neon from the argon, but in this case I cooled the charcoal to — 80° C.
by means of liquid carbon dioxide. As Valentiner and Schmidt' have shown, it
is possible in this way to detect xenon and krypton in argon, the xenon and
krypton being retained by the cold charcoal, while the argon is removed by means
of the pump. As I expected to find only minute quantities of these gases, I mixed
together all the argon that originated from the same spring group, before examining
it. But 1 was unable to detect any trace of these rare gases. I then mixed the
last distillates of the argon gases from Reykir, Laugaras and Grafarbakki, and
examined this gas mixture in the above- described manner for xenon and krypton,
but without success. If, therefore, the spring gases contain any xenon or krypton,
it must be in very small quantities.

Thus the study of the rare inert gases has not given a decisive answer as to
the origin of nitrogen in the Icelandic spring gases, but it is most probable that
the nitrogen found in springs such as those at Reykir, Laugaras and Grafarbakki,
which are rich in nitrogen, is chiefly of atmospheric origin; while the small quan-

' Ann. d. Phys. IV Folge. 18, 187. 1905.

79 257

titles found in the solfataras at Hengill and Kerlingarfjöll are partly due to chem-
ical processes in the interior of the earth.

The exhalations from Bjarnarflagshraun, (the lava field east of Myvatn), and
the northern part of Kjalhraun, (south of Hveravellir), differ from those of the other
hot springs in that they contain little or no radium emanation. The composition
of the outflowing gases coincides closely with that of the atmosphere, so that there
is no doubt whatever that it is atmospheric air that we have to deal with. Similar
exhalations of warm, damp air are fairly common in the hot lava fields of Iceland.

In 1846 BuNSEN ' collected some gases exhaling from the crater of Hecla
and the surrounding lava, the latter having been produced by the eruption of 1845,
and having not then become cold. These gases proved to be of similar compos-
ition to the atmosphere. Johnstrup" collected a similar gas sample in some lava
in Myvatnsoræfi, east of Myvatn, which had been ejected about a year previously.
Christensen'' also finds that the gases emanating from a fumarole at Krisuvik have
the same composition as the atmosphere, and he explains the presence of air in
these exhalations on the hypothesis that the steam, rushing out through the spring
channel, sucks the air into the channel through the side walls. He considers
the feasibility of this much increased by the fact that lava and other volcanic
rocks are exceedingly porous. I think it more probable, however, that the atmos-
pheric air and water are in such a case in actual circulation, similar to the circu-
lation of water in hot water pipes. The air and the water ooze down, in cooler
parts, through small channels and fissures in the soil. In the heated interior of
the earth the air becomes hot and the water evaporates, and their density conse-
quently decreases. They now rise again up to the earth's surface through channels
which are kept hot by the current of hot air and steam.

A most interesting point in connection with these atmospheric exhalations is
that they do not appear to come into contact with the real seat of thermal activity,
for this would at once be marked by a change in the composition of the spring
gases. The heat energy necessary to maintain these exhalations must be conveyed
to them in a special manner. The exhalations studied by Bunsen and Johnstrup,
from Hecla and Myvatnsoræfi respectively, provide a ready explanation of the heat
energy. The lava from recent eruptions had not become cold throughout, and
although the surface was cold, there was sufficient heat in its depths to produce
the circulation of air and water as above described. The same explanation is not,
however, applicable to the exhalations we investigated from Bjarnarflagshraun and
Kjalhraun. Bjarnarflagshraun was formed by the volcanic eruptions which took
place during the years 1724 — 1729, and is thus about 180 years old. Kjalhraun
is, however, older than the settlement of Iceland, 1. e. at least 1100 years old.
These stretches of lava would doubtless therefore have become cold throughout, if

' Pogg. Ann. 83, 242. 1851.

- Festskrift, p. 180; or Tidsskrift for Physik og Clieniie, 10, 232. 1889.

» loc. cit. p. 233.

258

particular causes had not been at work to keep the bulk of the lava hot. Bearing
in mind that there are hot springs in the immediate neighbourhood of the atmos-
pheric exhalations both in Bjarnarflagshraun and in Kjalhraun, it is very probable
that the high temperature of the lava is maintained by heat conduction from hot
springs beneath the lava. They have not been able to break through the hard
crust at the bottom of the lava, but have been compelled to find an outlet at the
edge of the lava field. The atmospheric exhalations may therefore be correctly
characterized as secondary hot springs, as distinct from the real hot springs, in
that they derive their heat energy from the latter.

The exhalations from the above-mentioned secondai-y hot springs contained
very little radio active emanation. It was therefore out of the question to deter-
mine the character of the emanation. But the ionizing effect of the radio active
emanations from the other hot springs was so great as to render this possible. As
to the methods employed, I refer to page 35. The investigations showed that the
ionisation in the ionisation chamber increased immediately after the introduction
of the spring gases, in such a way as might be expected if the gases contained
no other emanations than radium emanation.

The coefficient of transformation calculated from the experiment, and referred
to in Table I under the head of a is of the same magnitude as the coefficient
of transformation for radium emanation (2.16 x 10 ") found by Rutherford. The
divergences seldom exceeded probable experimental errors, the latter of course being
rather great owing to the difficult conditions under which the experiments were
carried out.

Taken as a whole, the divergences of a for spring gases from the same group
appear to be to some extent of a systematic nature, in that a for the same group
is generally either too great or too small. Blit bearing in mind that the ionisation
in the ionisation chamber apparently made the same progress whether the spring
gas was examined immediately after the gas was collected, or after it had stood
three or four days in the collecting bottles before it was investigated for radio-
activity, it seems rather improbable that these small divergences, even though they
are systematic, should be due to different radio active emanations. They are more
likely to be due to small systematic errors in the treatment
and investigation of the gases. The Icelandic spring gases may
therefore for the present be regarded as not containing any
slowly decaying radio active emanation except radium emanation.
Rapidly changing radio active emanations such as, for
instance, thorium and actinium emanation, cannot of course
be examined in the same way. I therefore endeavoured to
examine them in the following manner.

The spring gases were conducted from the collecting funnel,
which was placed in the spring, through the tube a (Fig. 16)
into the tin vessel B. From B the spring gases were passed
Fig. 16.

81 259

through the tube /), about 1 ni. in length, out into the atmosphere. The cylinder k
is, as the illustration shows, placed in the middle of the vessel B. The whole was
arranged so that the gases evolved by the spring were spontaneously and without
supervision passed through the vessel in the manner described. The apparatus
thus arranged was left untouched for about 12 hours, when Ihe cylinder k was
brought to the tent, where its ionizing effect was measured in the ionisation cham-
ber. The rate of decay of the induced activity was then investigated.

In these experiments the induced activity due to Ra-emanation was so predo-
minant, that I was not able in the time at my disposal, and with the apparatus I
used, to decide with certainty whether other kinds of emanation might nol be
present in the spring gases.

If, therefore, the Icelandic spring gases contain thorium emanation or other
similar rapidly decaying emanations, they must be present only in very small
quantities in comparison with the radium emanation. In support of this view, I
will mention that we were unable to trace radio active substances in the sediments
or mud of any of the springs. For if the spring gases contained a large amount
of rapidly decaying emanations, one would reasonably expect to find in the spring
water the radio active substances responsible for these emanations, and therefore
also in the sediments and mud of the springs, and it is hardly possible that we
should have failed to detect them.

The amount of radium emanation in the spring gases varied greatly in the
different groups of springs. The greatest amount of emanation in the gas samples
from Kerlingarfjöll, was about 43 times as large as in one of the gas samples at
Reykir, although the secondary exhalations from the lava fields of Bjarnarflagshraun
and Kjalhraun gave quite an insignificant amount of emanation compared with the
above-mentioned gas samples from Reykir.

In springs belonging to the same group one also meets with considerable
variations in the amount of emanation, but these variations are, however, much
less than those between one spring group and another. We observe particularly
that when the springs in a group are similar in other respects, the variations in
emanation are also comparatively small. When, therefore, Boltwood' on the
occasion of his investigations of some hot springs in America states that the
amount of emanation in a spring cannot be deduced from the emanation in a
neighbouring spring, this only holds good, in the case of many Icelandic spring
groups, with regard to the smaller variations. As a rule, the amount of emanation
in the springs of a group is known approximately when one has determined the
amount of emanation in one of the springs.

On the other hand, in the case of springs in the same group belonging to
dilTerent types, the variations in the emanation may be comparatively large. This
is the case with the hot springs at Hveravellir and at Reykjafoss. Acetous, sul-

' Americ. Journ. Sc. 20, 128. 1905.

1). K. 1). Vldensk. Selsk. Skr., 7. Hække, naturvidensU. oj! niiilhenl. Afd. VIII. 4. 34

260 82

phurous springs and alkaline springs containing free oxygen are found at each of
these places.

The measurements of the emanation in the spring gases apparently contribute
very little to an elucidation of the nature of the hot springs. The comparatively
large variations in the emanations indicate that the emanation is affected by several
factors which have little importance in connection with other properties of the
springs. In this regard it is certainly very important to note that the emanation
is distinguished from the other gases evolved by the springs, on account of its
gradual decay. In two spring gases, originally of the same composition and un-
dergoing similar treatment on their way to the earth's surface, there will be less
emanation in that which has been longer on the way, owing to the decay of the
emanation. This latter factor will therefore doubtless contribute to increase the
difference between the amounts of emanation contained in the gases.

The emanation in springs situated on the same fissure in the earth's crust
often increases the nearer one comes to one end of the fissure. This is the case
with the three hot springs at Reykir, (Reykir Nos. 1, 2 and 3), the springs at Gra-
farbakki and those at Hengill. At the first-named place the springs with the
greatest emanation are situated at the south end of the fissure, and in the two
other places at the north-east and north ends respectively. The decay of the
emanation will possibly account for tiiis, as the spring gases take less time to reach
the surface at the end of the fissure where the emanation is greater. This may
either be because the subterranean seat of the spring is nearer this end of the
fissure, or because the gases, for some unknown reasons, pass more rapidly through
the subterranean channels. The great variation in the amount of emanation from
the alkaline springs at Hveravellir is probably to a great extent due to similar
causes, in that the spring gases often stand for a considerable time in the subter-
ranean cavities which, according to the geyser theory I have advanced, are to be
found in this locality. The fact that the whole of the emanation does not come
from the subterranean seat of the spring would have considerable bearing on the
variations in the amounts of emanation. A considerable part of the emanation from
the springs is often due to radium contained in the superficial strata. The atmos-
pheric water, sinking through the ground, receives a great deal of the emanation
produced in these strata, and conveys it to the spring channel. A comparison ,ot
the radio activity of the alkaline and acetous springs at Reykjafoss and at Hvera-
vellir seems to confirm this. The acetous springs at these places are in my opinion
more closely connected with the real subterranean seat of these spring groups than
the alkaline springs, which contain gases of atmospheric origin and consequently
also atmospheric water in considerable quantities. But the alkaline springs are
nevertheless often more radio active than the acetous springs, which is certainly
to be regarded as a proof that atmospheric water and air supply the springs with
radium emanation from the strata the water has passed through. It is possible
that this could be demonstrated experimentally, for there is good reason to suppose

83 261

tliat, provided the water which rushes into the upper part of the spring channel
carries with it an appreciable amount of emanation, a parallel could be shown
between the quantity of emanation and the amount of water in the springs. An
exhaustive investigation of the amount of water and of the emanation would there-
fore doubtless give a decisive answer to this question. On our journey, we were
so much occupied with other investigations, that time did not permit of our meas-
uring the volume of the water, but our observations on the spot indicate that an
increase in the volume of water is generally attended by a corresponding increase
in the radio activity. Mud pools with little water, as for instance those at Hvera-
vellir and at Reykjafoss, often seemed to exhibit a surprisingly slight radio activity
in comparison with the other springs of the same group.

Of course these experiments throw no light on the question as to what extent
the radio activity of the springs is due to emanation conveyed by atmospheric
water into the upper part of the channel. But there is no doubt that a great deal
of the emanation in the springs must come with the other exhalations from the
interior, where all the springs in the same group have a common channel, or
perhaps even all the way from the seat of the heat energy of the springs, for
otherwise it is difficult to understand why the amount of emanation in proportion
to the other gases is usually of the same magnitude in the same group.

I have already shown, (page 63) that spring channels may often extend deep
down into the earth before joining the main channel of the group. Even two
springs situated side by side may have channels independent of each other deep
down in the earth. But it is evident that the longer the individual channels are,
and the deeper they extend down in the earth, the more probable it is that the
decay of the emanation and the supply of fresh emanation from the side channels
will cause the amounts of emanation from the two springs, originally equal, to be
finally quite different. When, therefore, we find that the three springs Namafjall
Nos. 1, 2 and 3 have practically an equal radio activity, it must undoubtedly be
attributed to the group in question having a common channel which divides into
three not far from the surface.

The same is probably the case with the two hot springs in Vestur-Hveradalir,
i. e. Kerüngarfjöll Nos. 1 and 2.

Inasmuch as the Icelandic hot springs are all radio active, and as radium
spontaneously produces heat, it seemed quite reasonable to conclude that the heat
energy of the springs is due to radium. I therefore expected that my measure-
ments of the radio activity of the hot springs would render valuable information
on this point. But this has not been the case. There are no definite proofs that
the heat energy of the springs is directly connected with their radio activity. The
fact that the nitrous springs at Reykir are both colder and less radio active than
similar springs at Laugaras and Grafarbakki, is probably due to other causes. And
on the other hand, although they are apparently quite as vigorous, the hot springs
at Hengill are less radio active than those at Hveravellir and Kerlingarfjöll.

34*

262 84

The radio activity is thierefore more likely to be dependent on other proper-
ties of the springs, and curiously enough, it seems to increase with the height of
the springs above sea-level.

Again, if the heat energy of the springs is produced by radium accumulated
around the subterranean seat of the springs, a greater amount of emanation would
probably be found in the spring gases than is the case. Of course, the emanation
takes a considerable time to pass through the channels of the spring from the
interior of the earth up to the surface, so that it is difficult to calculate how great
a fraction of the original emanation reaches the surface without being transformed.

The radio activity of the German and Austrian mineral springs' seems to be
about the same as of the Icelandic springs. A few, for instance Grabenbächer-
quelle, which contains emanation amounting to 564 x 10"-' i?S£ = 267 per gram
of uranium per second, are even more radio active than the Icelandic springs.
This is generally the case in springs containing appreciable quantities of radio-
active substances in the spring water or in the sediments. It does not, however,
preclude the possibility of radium being an indirect cause of the thermal activity
of the hot springs. Strutt's'-' researches have rendered it probable that the internal
heat of the earth is sustained by the radium contained in common rocks. It is
true that no measurements have yet been made of the radium contained in the
Icelandic rocks, but there is no reason to doubt that they are similar in this res-
pect to the same sort of rocks in other lands.

We examined the water from two cold springs in the neighbourhood of
Akureyri for radio activity. They turned out to be more radio active than the
tap water in Copenhagen. This example shows that the superficial rocks of Ice-
land may contain radium, but our measurements of the emanation in the hot
springs may also be considered as a proof of the presence of radium in the Ice-
landic rocks. I have already pointed out that the radium contained in the super-
ficial rocks may have considerable bearing on the radio activity of the hot springs.
But the radium in the lower strata has also considerable significance, in that some
of the emanation evolved in these rocks is carried bj' water, steam and other spring
exhalations to the main channel of the spring group. This has no little influence
on the activity of all the springs in the group, for the average radio activity of
a spring group depends on the amount of emanation supplied to the spring chan-
nel deep down in the earth where the springs of the group have all a common
channel, or where the different spring channels are so near to each other that they
are subject to the same influences. The emanation thus received by the channels
originates chiefly in the surrounding rocks, which are of course very deep down,
although some of it may be carried by the water all the way from the super-
ficial strata.

' See, for instance, H. Mache u. St. Meyer: l^hys. Zeitschr. 6, 693. li)05; and H. W. Schmidt u.
K. Kurz: Phys. Zeitsclir. 7, 209. 1906.
- Proc. Roy. See. 77, 472. 1906.

85 263

When one considers that Iho supply of the emanation is llius evolved from
rocks ranging over a large area, one can readily understand that the amount of
emanation contained in the spring gases is not dependent solely on the amount of
radium contained in the rocks, but also on the facility with which these rocks
give off the emanation. As already mentioned, the decay of the emanation will
also tend to increase the uncertainty of deducing from the emanation contained
in the spring gases the amount of radium in the rocks, for it is difficult to say
how much time has elapsed since the gases were in contact with the rocks pro-
ducing the emanation.

A peculiarity of the hot springs is that they are generally found gathered in
groups, being of course confined to fissures in the crust of the earth, (see p. 68).
The reason for this is, that it is only where fissures are found in the crust that
water can penetrate sufficiently deep down into the earth to become hot. In my
opinion, one has no ground for expecting to find any special agents which produce
the heat necessary for the thermal activity of the springs, inasmuch as this activity
is undoubtedly occasioned by the fact that the heat present in the interior of the
earth can be transmitted without difficulty to the earth's surface at the places
where the hot springs are situated.

But the transmission of heat from the interior of the earth takes place al-
most exclusively by means of convection of hot water and steam through fissures
in the crust of the earth.

It will readily be seen that, at the places where the thermal springs are, the
earth must suffer an extraordinary loss of heat. An estimate of this loss of heat
can be obtained by means of a simple calculation. The temperature gradient of
the earth is generally estimated at Ü.000304" per cm., and the earth's coefficient of
heat conductivity at 0.0041. Hence we get the loss of heat through each square
cm. of the earth's surface per second as 0.0000125 gram calories, or through a
square km. 12500 gram calories. It is sufficiently accurate to reckon the mean
temperature of Iceland at 0" C, and assuming that the thermal activity of the
springs will raise the temperature of 1 litre of water to 100° C. in one second, the
heat consumption amounts to 100000 gram calories, which, according to the
above calculation, corresponds to the loss of heat from 8 square km. of the earth's
surface. But in reality the loss of heat from the spring groups explored by us is
undoubtedly much greater. For these spring groups deliver on an average more
than 1 litre of water at 100" C. per second, and the spring water has already lost
a great deal of its heat energy on its way up to the earth's surface, partly from
heat conduction from the spring channel to the surroundings, and partly on ac-
count of evaporation. I presume therefore that the loss of heat on the part of the
earth through the thermal activity of the springs is not exaggerated when we
reckon it, at each of the spring groups we investigated, at from 5 to 10 times as
great as calculated above, or as great as the loss of heat due to conduction from
about 60 square km. of the earth's surface.

264 86

Apart from the possibility of the loss of heat occasioned by the thermal activity
of the springs being compensated for by heat produced by special agents or reac-
tions on the spot, such an extraordinary loss of heat within such a limited area
must apparently lead to extraordinary temperature gradients in the surroundings,
if the heat energy is only supplied by means of conduction. The consequent
gradual cooling of the surrounding strata would probably, after a short time, be
attended by a corresponding decline in the activity of the springs. In my opinion,
however, the thermal activity of the springs does not decrease as rapidly as the
above might lead one to expect, whence it follows that special causes must be
present, and the prominent cause is that the heal supplied to the hot springs is
chiefly by means of convection and not by conduction.

Sulphurous springs usually come into existence immediately after volcanic
eruptions, and on this account it is probable that their channels extend deep down
into the earth; I have already adduced reasons which seem to indicate that these
springs are directly connected with the fluid interior of Ihe earth (magma). In
this case there seems to be no reason why the heat should not be transmitted by
convection, by means of the spring exhalations coming from the fluid magma up
to the surface. Through the circulation of the fluid magma, the loss of heat is
distributed over a wide area.

In the secondary hot springs in the lava fields, the heat is conveyed by the
exhalations from the bottom of the lava up to the surface. But from the fluid
magma up to the bottom of the lava the heat is undoubtedly conveyed through
the lower spring channels.

The nitrous hot springs apparently do not communicate directly with the
fluid magma, for, as I have already pointed out, it is highly probable that the
nitrogen and argon contained in their exhalations are of atmospheric origin. It is
therefore obvious that they belong to a kind of secondary hot spring similar to the
lava exhalations, only with this difference, that their channels go much deeper down
than those of the lava exhalations. In both cases atmospheric water and air are
caused to circulate in the channels by means of the heat energy supplied to the
bottom of the channels. In the case of the nitrous springs it is not very likely
that the heat energy is conveyed through other channels from the magma up to
the actual spring channels. One has more reason for assuming that the channels
of these springs go down so deep that the necessary heat energy is easily supplied
to them by conduction from the lower strata of magma. It is not altogether im-
possible that these springs may to some extent communicate with the magma. The
small quantities of sulphuretted hydrogen (and carbon dioxide) found in the spring
gases from Laugaras and Grafarbakki might perhaps be looked upon as the last
remnants of sulphurous exhalations from the interior of the earth.

Corrigenda.

Page 18, line 31, for spou ting-spring read spouting spring.

— 24, — 34, for is altered read is then altered.

— 26, — 29, for ganged read gauged.

— 30, — 11, for used by uuit is read unit is used by.

— 38, — 1, omit from.

— 49. In Table I against Nåmafjall No. 1 in column H.^ 49,0 "lo should be 54,4 "lo, and

against Nåmafjall No. 4 in the same column should stand 4 9,o "lo.

D. K. D.ViDKNSK. Ski.sk.Skü.. \ATi itv.or. MATH. Al I). VIII. 4 |Th.Th<)Hki:i.ss<)n|

Plati-; i

a. The twin lakes on the western slope of Krafla, looking north. '^The solfataras are seen in the
light-coloured sections on the north-eastern slopes of the two lakes. A man is standing at the spot

where the two lakes join.

h. The hot springs ;it Ntinuilj^iil. looking north. (Ins sample Xu, 1 oi-igiiiatcs from the slough seen
in the foreground. The rod standing to the left of the slough is ahout 1 m. high. Kratla is seen

in the hackground, near the centre.

1). I\. l).\'n)KNSK. Ski.sk.Skii., NATi iw.od MATH. Al I). \'lll.4 | Th.Tmdukki.sson]

Pl.ATK II

a. Bjarnarllagshraun and Jaröbaösholar. The hill in the Ij.ici^gMiuiul lu the l.■.l^l . is
Jarôbaôshôlar. In the foreground (to the west), a small part of Bjarnarflagsliraun witli a

row of three craters is seen.

/). Heykjalaugar. At the "Sundlaug . wliich is fartlicst a\va_v, a small blacU house is visible.
A man is standing at the middle spring, Hornahver.

I). K. DA'roKNSK. Ski.sk. Sku , NAiiiiv.od >rA rii. .Ai'd. \'III. 4 ITm 'riKiiiKiissoNl

Pi.ATK in

Q
a

Ï 3

L-

Ô ü

o —

— «J

5 .«

.5 c

I). K. D.Viiii.NSK. Si;i.sk.Sk1!.. NAii liv. oc, MAiH.Ai 11. \'1II 4 |Th.Tiiohi;i;i.sson1

Plate IV

n. K. D.ViDKNSK. Ski.sk, Sku., natchv. oc. math. Arn. VIII. 4 |TH.Tn()iiKKi.ssoNl

Plate V

— 3
01 O

.M u
V ~

■oT o ;=

.Û "' M

-TÎ

c«

■^

■*-»

■'-'

c/l

tiÛ

:::

; 1

Ö0

"re

■C

^ se u

I). K. I). ViDEXSK. Ski.sk. Skr., natlkv. og math. Ai-d. VIII. 4 [Th.Thobkklsson]

Pl..\ TE VI

= ?

Cl. «

D. K. I).\'ii)i;xsK. Selsk. SKn., natiihv. og math. Aid. VIII. 4 (Tii.Thodkki.sson]

Plate VII

a. Austur-Hveradalir. Kerlingarfjöll. looking east. The steam from Öskrandi and another steam vent

fills the valley with a thick mist. Most of the solfataras in Austur-Hveradalir are situated in ravines

to the left (north I of the main valley shown in this illustration.

b. Grafarbakkahverir, with the river Litla La.xa in the foreground. \'aamàlahver is nearest the

river; the rellection of the little dome-shaped eminence around the spring may be seen in the

sheet of water. A man is standing in the immediate neighbourhood of the larger geyser.

D. K.D.\'ii>i.nsk.Si:i.sk.Skr., nati nv.or, math. Aid. VIII. 4 |Th.Thoiiki;i.ssonJ

Plate VIII

il. The geysers at Grafarbakki. The rod standing by the southern geyser is nearly

1 ni. Iiigli.

b. Gryla, sliowing the steam period of the spring.

D. K. n.\'ii)i:NSK. Sei.sk.Skr., natlmv. oc, math.Aid. \'III.4 [Th.Thoukf.i.sson]

Plate IX

■ .i,':: >-..;r . '.K-r ■ '

a. Hveragerùi at Reykjafoss, looking noiUi. Onh' the alkaline springs in tlie noitlicrn part

of Hverageröi are visible.

6. A mud volcano at Hengill. The rod shown is about 1 ni. high.

I) K. D.ViDKNSii Smi.sk.Skk.. NA II riv.oi; math. Aid. \'11I. 4 |Th.Thoi)Ki;i.ss(>n|

Plate X

^ so

o o

D. K.D.ViDKNSK. Sklsk.Skr.. nau'hv.oc, mhth. Ai d. VIII. 1 [Th.Tii()Iiki;i.sson|

Plate XI

D. K.D.ViDKNSK. Sklsk.Ski<..n.vtiuv.oc, math. Al- 1). VIII. 4 ITh.Thohmu.s.sonI

Plate XII

A large isolated mud volcano at Hengill. The culuiiiu of white mist in the background indicates
a group of hot springs to the south-east of the mud volcano.

D. I\.D.\'iDExsK.Si;i.si;. SKii..NATr«v.()G math. Afo.VIII. 4 [Th.Thoiiki-lsson]

Plate XIII

A fuming mud cone at Hengill. A traveller is standing to the left
of the spring.

ICHTHYOTOMICAL CONTRIBUTIONS

II. THE STRUCTURE OF THE AULOSTOMIDÆ,
SYNGNATHIDÆ AND SOLENOSTOMIDÆ

HECTOR F. E. JUNGERSEN

D. Kgl. Danske Vidensk. Selsk. Skrifter, 7. Række, naturvidensk. og mathem. Afd. VIII. 5

-cj)i^je«c=»-->

KØBENHAVN

BIANCO LUNOS BOGTRYKKERI

1910

Ill the contribulion published in 1908 (23 b) and in the present contribution
I have endeavoured to give a fuller and more thorough account of the structure
of the members of the old Cuvierian family "Bouches-en-flùte" and the old Cuvierian
order "Lophobranchii" than it would be possible to gather from the previous litera-
ture; and in giving a broader base of facts than hitherto possessed, especially con-
cerning their osteology, I hope to have settled the question, how far these forms
are really related, and thus to have laid down a sound and reliable foundation for
their future systematic arrangement. That previous knowledge of the structure of
these fishes must be said to have been defective and that a thorough reexamination
of their osteology was justified, is, I think, proved in the descriptive part of my
papers and in the notes which I have added. The latter I have made so full and
extensive, that any reader may be in the position to verify to what extent the de-
scriptions given by me contain really new information, and to realize the confusion
which on several points has been brought about, partly by defective observations,
partly by ignoring facts already settled before.

The bulk of the present paper is merely descriptive; but in a concluding
chapter I have set forth the systematic arrangement of the fishes under considera-
tion which seems to me most in accord with the anatomical facts obtained.

Aulostomidæ.
Aiilostonia.

The following account is based on specimens of Aulostoma coloratum M. and
Tr. As far as I have seen the other species A. chinense (L.) does not show any
differences of importance.

Exoskeleton.

Aulostoma is covered with scales; only on the head (including the posttemporal),
and on the anterior part of the back are scales wanting; through the naked skin
of the back is seen, more or less distinctly, the sculptured surface of three longi-
tudinal, median, bony nuchal shields. The scales embrace basaliy the anterior
margins of the second dorsal fin and anal tin and cover part of the caudal
fin. Most of the scales are ovoid, with truncate hind margin, along which is a
single row of large teeth; the latter are independent structures, separated from the

35-

270 4

scale-plate, dropping off when macerated. The largest scales are found along the
sides of the body, above and below the lateral line; their number of teeth, in
specimens of about 50 ctm. length, is 33—37. In each row the middle teeth are
largest, the size evenly decreasing towards the margins. The lateral, smaller teeth
show basally a small extension, which appears to vanish on the larger and older
ones towards the middle. On a scale of about 3 mm. length one of the longest
teeth measures 0,352 mm., one of the shortest 0,112 mm. In another specimen of
ca. 40 ctm. length, one of the lateral body-scales carries 28 teeth, a scale from
near the middle line of the back 14 teeth, and one from the caudal fin 7. In a
young specimen of 110 mm. length, scales from the sides of the body show 7 teeth;
the scale-plate is 0,336 x 0,304 mm., the middle tooth 0,096 mm. in length; a scale
from the middle of the belly in front of the anus carries only 3 teeth, one median
and two lateral; the scale itself is 0,282 x 0,iö2 mm., the median tooth 0,0î)6 mm. The
median tooth apparently is the oldest, and new teeth are formed in pairs, one on each
side of the first etc. in a similar way as G. Winther (58) has shown the scale-teeth to
originate in Gobiiis. It would be of some interest to have for examination still younger
specimens which might decide if the development begins with a simple scale-plate
without any teeth, on which, later, a single, median tooth, appears, next the first pair
of lateral ones and so on ; or if perhaps one single tooth is the first to be formed,
the appearance of a scale-plate the next step etc. In the latter case some light
might be thrown on the origin of the dermal asperities found in two species of
Fistalaria; but it has to be remembered that in the latter genus the small booklets
or denticles form one piece with their basal enlargement (cfr. below).

The large scale-plates of Aulosioma are provided with a great number of con-
centric striæ, parallel to the margin ; the number seems to be about double that
of teeth present; in the small scales of young specimens only 2 — 3 striæ are found
running along each margin ^

The canal of the lateral line is not inclosed in the scales, but in a system
of free, thin, bony tubes; these tubes are uncovered by scales from the postfrontal
to about the level of the posterior margin of the ventral fins; from here and further
backwards the tubes are sunk between the scales and more or less covered by
these, but the tubes will never be found combined or coalesced with the scales.

Immediately below the skin, in the most superficial part of the muscles, is
found a most richly developed system of long, narrow and flat ossifications, pro-
bably formed in the outermost layer of the intermuscular ligaments. Corresponding
to the arrangement of the lateral muscles these ossifications appear in a double
row on each side above the lateral line, from the head to the tail; below the
lateral line the trunk shows two double series, the tail only one, as dorsally to
the lateral line. In each double row the upper and lower members converge to-
wards the tail, meeting at a very acute angle. In the dorsal row the upper anterior
member is by far the largest, very much surpassing in size any of the others; it

5 271

is fastened by ligament to the epiotir of the skull and reaches backwards about
as far as the anterior coalesced part of the vertebræ. Its upper surface is flat, and
more or less observable through the skin, laterally to the median nuchal shields;
the lower surface carries a thin vertical lamella, originating from its posterior half,
to enlarge the face of muscular attachment. Much smaller, but still of consider-
able size, is the anterior member of the uppermost ventral row : it is in front con-
nected by ligament with another separate ossification, which, passing over the
branch given off from the posttemporal to the first vertebra, is fastened to the
pterotic of the skull; thus it is from the outside covered by the posttemporal. The
"inscription" itself lies below the plate representing the coalesced transverse pro-
cesses of the anterior vertebræ and dissolves behind into a bundle of long fibres.
Generally the anterior members of the whole system of "inscriptiones tendineæ"
are the stoutest. Into the lowermost ventral double row project parts of the endo-
skeleton, viz. the posterior ends of the postclavicle and the coracoid; while the
former bone ends as a needle, the latter forms a bundle of threads. In a similar
way most of the ossified tendons, or "inscriptiones", are split up at both ends —
more or less irregularly dichotomously ".

Endoskeleton.

The vertebral column consists of 60 vertebræ, 24 (25) abdominal and 36
(35) caudal. The four anterior abdominal vertebræ (PI. I, figs. 9, 10, PI. II, fig. 10)
are elongated and coalesced into one piece; but distinct sutures show the composi-
tion of originally separate elements. This part takes up about one-fifth of the
whole length of the vertebral column. Seen from below (PI. I, fig. 9) the corpora
do not show much of the usual type; only the posterior one is more like a normal
vertebral body, otherwise the combined neural arches and the coalesced transverse
processes constitute the dominant part of the whole. The spinous processes form
one vertical crest (PI. I, fig. 10), the combined transverse processes a similar one on
each side, sloping somewhat downwards and narrowing posteriorly. The single
elements are immovably joined through sutures.

Closer examination of the lower surface will show that the bodies of the
second and third vertebra are longer, the first and especially the fourth shorter;
(in a specimen, where the whole coalesced part is 61 mm. in length, the first body
is 14 mm., the second 17 mm., the third 18, and the fourth 12 mm.). The front
end of the first corpus has partly preserved the usual type, but the posterior part,
behind the openings for spinal nerves and blood vessels (n), is elongated and modi-
fied; the two following have both their ends elongated and modified to about the
same extent, as will be evident on looking at the position of the nerve-openings;
of the last vertebra only the anterior part is elongated and modified: here the
nerve-openings n are found at the posterior end, and the posterior part of the
transverse process appears separated as an independent process, as is the case with
the following free abdominal vertebræ. The transverse processes on the second

272 6

and third vertebrae possess an elongated part, directed forwards (PI. 1, fig. 10); that
of the second vertebra projects a little (PI. I, fig. 9, 10*) and is connected by a strong
ligament with the posterior end of the postteniporal.

On examining the lateral aspect of the coalesced vertebrae (PI. I, fig. 10, PI. II,
fig. 10) we find the sutures partiallj' repeating the features characteristic of the fol-
lowing free vertebrae: in the small bend (a) looking forwards we recognize the part
lettered in the same way on the following free vertebrae (PI. II, fig. 10) and on the
front end of the first of the fused vertebrae; further, the process (b) of the latter,
which is connected with the skull, will be found to correspond with the process (b)
on the free vertebrae, that is to say, it must be regarded as an articular process,
not as a transverse one, and the first vertebra has thus only developed the posterior
part of the transverse process (t).

The nerve-openings observable in side view (n') are in a position about corre-
sponding to that of the ventral ones (n, Pi. I, fig. 9).

All the following, free, abdominal vertebrae possess double transverse
processes (PI. II, fig. 10), i.e. there is an anterior and a posterior process on each
side (or it may be put in this way: there is one transverse process of the same
length as the whole vertebra but divided through a deep incision into an anterior
and a posterior part). A posterior process on one vertebra joins with its hind
margin the front margin of the anterior process on the following vertebra etc.; the
two adjoining processes, belonging to two different vertebrae, are almost of the
same length on the foremost vertebrae; but about from the 17th vertebra the
posterior element (i. e. the anterior pi-ocess of the I7lh vertebra) grows a little
longer than its fellow (the posterior process of No. 16), and on the 20th — 24th vertebrae
the difference is still more marked. On the foremost vertebrae these "double pro-
cesses" are nearly horizontal and directed straight outwards but farther back they
gradually pass into a position directed downwards and a little backwai'ds, still, on
the 24th vertebra (sometimes on the 25th) the long anterior transverse process does
not unite with its fellow from the opposite side; but on the next the anterior pro-
cesses join from opposite sides and form an inferior arch, terminating in a long,
backwards directed, lower spine. This vertebra (No. 25 or 26) I therefore count as
the first caudal vertebra. On the preceding, the last abdominal, vertebra the
posterior transverse process is already much shortened, on the first caudal it is
very small, and on the following it gradually vanishes.

The spinous processes originate from the posterior part of the neural
arches. On most of the abdominal vertebrae they are only low, and laterally com-
pressed; from about the 17th they rise somewhat and from the 20 — 21st they grow
long and slender as in most bony fishes. The anterior part of the neural arch is
shaped like a rather large, rounded process, which, together with its fellow from
the opposite side, embraces the base of the preceding spinous process; this part is
larger on the foremost vertebrae, and diminishes gradually backwards. Below this
part is found the proper articulation, formed by a triangular pit into which fits a
small process from the preceding neural arch.

7 273

Ribs are wanting.

Inter spinous bones are developed not only in connection with tbe dorsal
and anal fin rays, but in front of the dorsal fin a row of 9 or 10 rayless inter-
neurals is found, beginning immediately behind the skull. The three foremost of
the latter (PI. II, fig- 10, 1—3) are more or less distinctly seen through the skin,
which is here naked as already mentioned above, but the following 6 or 7 are
hidden below the scales. They all consist of a horizontal part, lying below the
skin in the shape of a longitudinal shield or plate, and a vertical part; they corre-
spond in position to the anterior 9 — 10 vertebræ, their vertical part being really
interposed in front of the spinous processes of the latter. This fact is less evident
in the case of the four elongated and fused vertebræ, but very easily seen in the
following free vertebræ. The modified interspinous bones form a continuous row,
in which not only the horizontal shields are joined (through sutures) but also
the vertical parts. The anterior three* are much larger than the rest, which
decrease evenly in size backwards, especially with regard to their shield-parts. The
upper face of the latter is sculptured with quite regular longitudinal striæ on the
3 anterior ones; feeble traces are seen on the fourth and still some faint and in-
distinct remnants may be observed on the following one or two. From the hind
margin of the second passes out on each side a long, flat and slender splint of
bone, looking like an ossified tendon fused to the shield; similar, but much
shorter ones proceed from the posterior margin of the following shields, except the
last, and are concealed below the plate of the next shield, while the long "cornua"
from the second nuchal shield diverge among the muscles.

The vertical part (the main part or stem of the typical interspinous bone) is
elongated longitudinally according as the upper edge is modified into a shield; it
is most elongated and at the same time lowest in the 3 foremost interneurals (the
"nuchal shields"), increasing in height backwards with decreasing length; its lower
margin is cleft, thus embracing the crest formed by the fused arches and spinous
processes. The foremost as well as the fourth to the tenth interneurals show most
distinctly that the position is originally in front of the corresponding spinous pro-
cesses as is usually the case in fishes The foremost is connected with the supra-
occipital by ligament. Immediately behind the row of rayless interneurals appear
those supporting the (9— )10 isolated rays, which together constitute the first dorsal
fin; each ray of the latter is a spine having a small separate fin-membrane. These
interneurals are considerably smaller than the preceding and of a different shape
(PI. II, fig. 10, 10 — 16); they do not form a closed row nor do they reach to their
corresponding vertebræ. The foremost corresponds to the 11th (or 10th) vertebra,
between each of the following is an interspace with one or two spinous processes.

* Only these three "shields" have been mentioned previously. Güntheh (16a p. 537) says:
"A long narrow bony shield, half as long as the snout, is joined to the occiput and extends along the
neck." But I.e. p. .538 he sajs {A. chinenser. "the three single plates of which the nuchal shield is
composed are more distinct."

274 8

Like the preceding modified interneurals they all consist of only one single piece
(are "unisegmented"); in position they are about horizontal. The interneurals
supporting the second dorsal fin number 26 or 27; except the foremost and hind-
most they are "bisegmented", a small ossicle (with a median cartilaginous centre)
occupying the cleft base of each ray and connecting through cartilage with the
main part or stem. The foremost interspinous bone is small and rayless, the next
two support quite rudimentary rays. The two anterior are together interposed
between two spinous processes (of the 34th and 35th or 35th and 36th vertebræ),
but only tlie second almost reaches the spine; the following ones are interposed
singly or in pairs (somewhat irregularly); from the sixth they reach almost to the
base of the neural arch, from the twelfth almost to the corpus; the hindmost
again are shorter.

The anal fin is supported by 26 interspinous bones, likewise bisegmented.
The anterior bones slope forwards, the foremost is about horizontal in position;
the fourth reaches the spinous process of the 35th (or 36th) vertebra, lying close
behind the tip of its inferior spinel

The fin-rays of the unpaired fins. The isolated dorsal rays are
spines (PI. II, fig. 10, s), made up of one piece, without any joints; they are rather
blunt, flat and somewhat weak, basally with a transversely rounded head, articulating
with a transverse pit in the inlerneural ^.

The four anterior rays of the second dorsal are also pointed, unjointed like
spines; the foremost two are rudimentary and both supported by the second inter-
neural. The following rays are longitudinally cleft and jointed, but not branched
distally.

Of the anal fin (29 rays) the 4 anterior similarlj' are short, spine-like, the
rest like those of the second dorsal.

The caudal fin has 20 rays: 3 -f~ 7 + 7 + 3; the three upper and lower
rays short, pointed and without joints, the rest jointed ; No. 5 to No. 15 are distally
branched.

Closer examination of the skeleton of the end of the tail shows that two
separate bones are interposed, like interneurals, above between the last vertebra
and the last but one, and in a similar way also two bones below; but of the two
lower the hindmost seems to be fused with the lower hypural bone of the last vertebra.
The rays are arranged in the following way: the foremost short ray is interposed
between the spinous processes of the third and second last vertebra; the two fol-
lowing short rays and the first upper jointed ray are supported by the "interposed"
bones; the upper hypural bone carries 6 rays, the lower 5 or 6; of the rest of the
lower rays, two jointed and two unjointed are supported by the lower "interposed"
bones, the anterior short ray is correspondingly situated to the anterior upper one.
As mentioned above only the rays 5 — 15, i. e. those supported by the hypural
bones, are distally branched ; of these the two middle ones — one from each
hypural — are somewhat longer than the rest, causing the rhomboid outline of the
caudal fin (probably homologous to the caudal filament in Fistularia).

9 275

Cranial skeleton. The head (PI. I, fig. 4) is laterally compressed, its
facial part, in front of the orbit, much elongated, tubiform, with terminal
mouth.

The skull (PI. I, figs. 1—4) is rounded above, somewhat flattened between the
orbits; the preorbilal part is about three times as long as the rest, forming a
slender beak with sharp edges, concave below, except at the anterior end, where
the vomer projects into a blunt keel.

Viewed from above (PI. I, fig. 2) by far the greater part of the beak will be
found made up by the mesethmoid (mes). At the front end of the latter the pala-
tines (pa) are seen, suturally united to the skull and meeting each other in the middle
line; behind these, part of the vomer (vo) is seen on each side of the mesethmoid.
Behind the mesethmoid are the frontals (fr), and, wedged in between the posterior
part of these, the supraoccipital (so); on each side of the latter the epiotics
(ep). Besides are seen the pterotics (sq), postfrontals (pf), alisphenoids (al),
prefrontals (prf), and — below the nasal openings — the preorbitals (ao). Fur-
thermore, the exoccipitals (eo) and the basioccipilal with the large condyle are
seen from above. As previously stated parietals and opisthotics are wanting.

The supraoccipital takes no share in the occipital foramen, the exoccipitals
meeting above the latter. Behind, the supraoccipital is cleft and deepened into a
triangular pit, filled out with the strong ligament which connects the skull with
the first nuchal plate. Each epiotic is provided with a knob (*), close to the
suture with the supraoccipital, for the attachment of the above-mentioned ossified
tendons.

On each side of the beak a narrow furrow runs from the front margin of the
nasal opening to the end of the snout; imbedded in this furrow is the continua-
tion of the supraorbital canal for the lateral line. Immediately in front of the
nasal opening the furrow encloses a small osseous tube (PI. I, figs. 1, 4) (na), evi-
dently a rudiment of the nasal bone; otherwise the walls of the whole canal are
membranous from where it leaves the frontal at the posterior border of the nasal
opening. The greater part of the furrow is lodged in the mesethmoid, only the
anterior third part in the vomer.

On the lateral aspect of the brain-case the upper sculptured face overhangs
the lower, smooth face with sharp edges, under which the two articular facets for
the hyomandibular are found, the anterior made up by the postfrontal and the
prootic, the posterior by the pterotic. Between the anterior facet and the opening
for the 7th nerve the prootic is provided with a spine, pointing backwards. As
already stated the large pterotic (sq) is interposed between the prootic and the
exoccipital, reaching downwards to the parasphenoid and basioccipital. In the
orbits the prootics from both sides meet each other with processes bridging over
the excavated upper face of the parasphenoid; thus a kind of myodome is present.
The upper lateral part of the bridge is formed by the adjoining alisphenoid (al);
the latter bone is in a peculiar way (as far as I know quite unique among

I). K. 1). Videiisk Selsk. Skr., 7. Række, naturvidensk. og mathem. Afd. VIII. 5. 36

276 10

teleosts) produced in front of the postfrontal, forming the inferior part of the post-
orbital process. 1 have not found any orbitosphenoid.

The basioccipital (ob) is laterally compressed, its occipital condyle broad,
transversely ovoid, and convex. The parasphenoid (PI. I, fig. 3) (pa) reaches far
behind, where like the adjoining basioccipital it is compressed; between the prootics
it broadens and in the orbits its upper margins send out a process in front of the
opening for the 5th nerve in the prootics. The anterior part is situated between the
prefrontals and its pointed front end stops on the mesethmoid without reaching
the vomer, a peculiar feature also found in Fistularia and Solenostomiis, but as far
as I know in no other teleost. The greater part of the lower face of the beak
belongs to the vomer (vo); the keelsliaped front end of the latter carries a longi-
tudinal strip of numerous small teeth.

Infraorbitals are wanting. The bone (ao) connecting the mesethmoid with the
prefrontal 1 think represents the antorbital (preorbital), but it does not enclose any
lateral line canal.

The opercular apparatus (PI. I, fig. 4) shows the usual 3 elements; the inter-
operculum (io) is an elongated thin plate mostly covered by the preoperculum and
reaching from the lower front end of the suboperculum to the mandibular articu-
lation, connected with a short ligament to the angular.

The hyomandibular (by) is obliquely directed forwards, its front face is con-
cave, the inner margin of the concavity being somewhat produced, like a wing;
the lower end is a thin cartilage connected with the proximal end of the sym-
plectic (sy). The latter is extremely thin and so firmly joined with the preoperculum
(pro), that it requires the utmost care to make out the boundaries; viewed from the
inner face only the posterior end and the distal part are more easily seen, the
preoperculum covering the rest so completely] that only an exceedingly narrow
brim may be detected along the upper margin of the preoperculum ; viewed from
the outside (PI. I, fig. 4) only the extreme proximal end is hidden bj' the preoper-
culum. The quadrate (qu) is very large, sculptured on part of the outer face with
fine striæ radiating from the neighbourhood of the articular head for the man-
dible. The palatine (pa) is small, its anterior part, which sends out a prominent
and relatively well developed maxillary process, meets its fellow from the other
side at the front end of the mesethmoid (PI. 1, fig. 2); behind, the palatine bifur-
cates (PI. I, fig. 1); the upper branch is wedged in between the mesethmoid and
the vomer, the lower branch covers the pointed and slender anterior end of the
entopterygoid (PI. I, fig. 4) (ept). A separate ectopterygoid is wanting. Where this
bone ought to be, the entopterygoid broadens into a plate firmly joining the oblique
anterior margin of the quadrate. The rest of the entopterygoid is a thin plate
the upper margin of which embraces the lateral edges of the cranial beak,
formed by the vomer and the mesethmoid. Behind the entopterygoid follows
the mefapterygoid (ml), the narrow anterior part of which in the same man-
ner embraces the edge of the mesethmoid, while the posterior broader part

11 277

has its somewhat thickened upper margin firmly fastened below the edge of
the broadest proximal part of the mesethmoid, reaching with a slender splint to the
preorbital.

On the inner face of tlie suspensory apparatus two oblique ovoid patches of
teeth are present, the anterior one on the entopterygoid *, the posterior on the
metapterygoid.

The short ascending part of the preoperculum covers not only most of the
lateral face of the hyoniandibular, but also the front face below the hyomandibular
foramen; the long horizontal part is on the outer face ornamented with fine striæ
and reaches almost to the articular head of the quadrate.

The premaxilla (PI. I, fig. 4 i), which bounds the mouth slit, is slender and
edentulous, provided with the typical processes, as also is the case with the rela-
tively large, posteriorly broadening maxilla (mx).

The articulation for the lower jaw is situated at a distance rather far behind
the end of the snout; the mandible therefore is fairly long, and the mouth
opening is extensible to a considerable degree. The mandible is high and laterally
compressed, composed of the typical three parts; the angular (an) is very small and
therefore easily overlooked. Two patches of teeth are found on the dental, an ante-
rior small one on the upper edge close to the symphysis, and a large posterior
one covering the upper part of the inner face.

Branchial apparatus. The whole gill-bearing part lies behind the articu-
lation of tlie hyoid to the skull. The hyoid (PI. II, fig. 7, 8) is composed of the typi-
cal elements, but the epihyal (eh) and the lower hypohyal (hy') are unusually
large in proportion to the other constituents. The stylohyal (st) is laterally
compressed and broadens towards the upper end, the inner face of which plays
against the thin cartilage interposed between the hyomandibular and the sym-
plectic.

The branchiostegals are four in number, belonging to the outer face of the
epihyal, the uppermost is the stoutest and longest, at its end divided into filaments.
The glossohyal is long and slender, surpassing in length the hyoid and the uro-
hyal, which is laterally compressed and higher behind, where it is broken up into
filaments. The first copula (PI. II, fig. 3 co ') or basibranchial is represented by a
short cartilage, the second (co'^) is slender, styliform and osssified; no further co-
pulæ are developed.

The gill-arches (PI. II, fig. 3, 4) are provided with rows of thin bony plates,
densely beset with teeth, in the place of gill-rakers. Along the whole anterior bor-
der of the first arch plates of this kind are found, from the upper to the lower
end, the first gill-slit being very wide; otherwise the plates are mostly confined to
the margins of the ceratobranchials only, those on the anterior border always
being somewhat larger. The first arch consists of three parts, having no pharyngo-

* The anterior patch of teeth has been seen by Günther (16 a p. 536), but he ascribes it to tlie
"palatine bones".

36*

278 12

branchial; the second arch has all four parts developed, but the short and slender
epibranchial (e") is widely separated from its ceratobranchial (c); it abuts against
the hinder end of the flat pharyngobranchial (ph"); the latter is on the pharyngial
face beset with teeth, and reaches to the epibranchial of the first arch.

The third arch also has four parts; the hypobranchial (hy"') has only a short
cartilaginous part lying at the same level as that of the second arch, but a long,
osseous process runs downwards, together with its fellow from the other side em-
bracing the branchial artery; the epibranchial is still weaker than that of the pre-
ceding arch, almost rudimentary, and still farther away from the upper end of its
ceratobranchial; its distal end articulates with both the third and fourth pharyngo-
branchial; the flat pharyngobranchial III is produced in front along that of the
second arch; its under face carries an ovoid patch of teeth. The fourth arch
consists only of two parts, the hypobranchial and epibranchial being absent;
the pharyngobranchial IV is shorter than the preceding but like this provided
with teeth. The fifth arch, as usually only one piece, carries the lower pharyngeal
teeth, and on the anterior or outer border some tooth-plates along the hindmost
gill-slit.

At the upper ends of all the ceratohyals the branchial lamellæ (PI. II, fig. 4) are
continued a short way upon the pharyngeal wall, supported by semicartilaginous
strips of tissue, which appear as prolongations of the cartilage enclosed by the
osseous sheaths of the ceratohyals.

Thus the branchial apparatus of Aulostoma foreshadows the condition found
in the Lophobranchii as to the skeletal parts, in the fact, that the epibranchials
II and III are reduced and separated from the rest of the arches, while the epi-
branchial IV is absent, and the basibranchials are reduced.

The shoulder-girdle (PI. Ill, figs. 4, 5) has been so fully dealt with by Starks
(55 p. 629) that only some features have to be repeated here and a few new facts to be
pointed out. The clavicular arch is composed of but two parts, the posttemporal
and the clavicle, the supraclavicle being absent. The posttemporal is through
ligament fastened to the somewhat serrated hind part of the pterotic (not also to
the epiotic); its outer face lies in the skin and is sculptured; from the inner face,
near the ventral margin, originates a flat branch, connected through ligament with
the first vertebra; the posterior angle of the posttemporal further is bound by
ligament to a blunt process on the transverse process of the second vertebra,
and at the same time with the upper end of the clavicle. As is the case with all
the members of the group treated here, the clavicle (cl) has a superficial sculptured
plate, seen in the skin (PI. Ill, fig. 4) and covering part of the fin-muscles. As in
Fistidaria the clavicle divides distally into two branches, the inner of which is
united with the outer face of the scapular arch (PI. Ill, fig. 4 i); but as the coracoid
is produced forwards to unite also with the outer (or anterior) branch, the aperture
between the branches, which is large in Fistidaria (PI. Ill, figs. 8, 9), in Aulostoma
is reduced to a small foramen (PI. Ill, fig. 5 f) (not visible from the outer aspect).

13 279

Inside the posterior upper angle of the clavicle is the postclavicle (pel). In the
scapular arch the scapular foramen is large; the coracoid (co), as shortly mentioned
above, is broadly united to the clavicle, leaving only the small opening described;
the lower edge, which is ventrally joined to its fellow from the opposite side, is
thickened on the outer side and posteriorly produced into a flat bundle of osseous
filaments, used for muscular attachments.

Of the four well developed pterygials (ba), the upper and smaller one is car-
ried by the scapular.

The pectoral fin rays (15—16) are unbranched, but jointed except the up-
permost (3 — 4).

The pelvic bones are not in contact; each is a triangular flat piece, with
feebly pronounced muscular crest along its middle. The outer of the 6 ventral
rays is unbranched, but jointed, the others branched and jointed. The position of
the ventrals is about on the level with the 20th abdominal vertebra '.

Visceral anatomy.

There are four complete gills and a large pseudobranch; a slit between
the 4th gill-arch and the lower pharyngeal. The alimentary canal is without
mesentery, short, and quite straight; the anal opening is situated immediately be-
hind the ventral fins, just behind the end of the ventral rays when these are
lying against the body. The oesophagus passes without boundary into the stomach;
the latter is spindle-shaped, narrowing behind into a pyloric part, sharply marked
off from the intestine. The oesophagus and stomach together are about of the same
length as the rest of the alimentary canal. The small intestine sends out from its
anterior end two well developed appendices pyloricæ, one on each side, the left
being somewhat longer than the right; the intestine is wider anteriorly and tapers
behind, where it is sharply bounded by a constriction from the short, wide rectum.
In the stomach of one specimen from the West Indies (a medium-sized female) I
found a wholly undigested herring 53 mm long and the vertebræ of another, other-
wise completely macerated and digested small fish; in another (large, dried) specimen
from the West Indies I also found the vertebræ of a small fish.

The liver encloses ventrally the oesophagus and part of the stomach, without
reaching the pyloric part; to the right side it reaches higher up on the sides of
the stomach than to the left; it is not properly lobed, but about in the middle of
the right margin there is a deep incision leading to the gall-bladder; from
the latter the long bile-duct passes backwards, lying close to the portal vein,
and enters the front end of the small intestine between the two appendices py-
loricæ.

The right cardinal vein is strongly developed, passing along the right kid-
ney and leaving the latter at its anterior end to unite with the ductus Cuvieri,
the left cardinal vein is small and its anterior part completely hidden in the left
kidney.

280 14

The aorta passes to the left side of the corpora of the coalesced anterior
vertebræ and continnes in this asymmetrical position. A sliort way behind the
last branchial vein, coming from the 3rd and 4th gill-arches, it sends out a pair
of strong branches, each for one of the pectoral fins, and ventrally between the
origin of these, it gives off the arteria coeliaca, which passes to the right side of
the oesophagus between the stomach and the liver, following the portal vein
and giving oiT branches to both oesophagus and stomach and one branch
running forwards to the lower face of the air-bladder, entering the "red-corpuscle".

The air-bladder is very thin-walled and reaches from the oesophagus, about
at the level of the front end of the liver, or the scapular foramen of the shoulder
girdle, to behind the ventral fins. At the anterior end it is provided with a large,
ovoid rete mirabile or "red gland"; besides the branch from the arteria coeliaca,
just mentioned, it has a branch from the portal vein, closely following the artery.

The kidneys are above the rectum fused to a thick mass, below which is
a urinary bladder; anteriorly the kidneys separate and filling out the impressions
between the vertebral corpora take on the shape of narrow bands, which under the
front end of the coalesced part of the vertebral column on each side form a small,
slightly swollen "head-kidney". The latter are asymmetrical, the left being the
larger. Through the "head-kidneys" pass out the above mentioned arteries for the
pectoral fins. The head-kidneys seem not to contain any urinary tubules, but such
are to be detected in the narrow strands of kidney-substance filling the grooves
on each side of the body of the last (the 4th) coalesced vertebra.

On the outer side of each kidney run the large vagus-nerves, which leave the
skull through the anterior exoccipital foramen, while a large nerve for the pectoral fin
leaves through the posterior (that nearest to the condyle); a deeper-lying nerve for
the pectorals passes out through the nerve-openings in the front end of the first of
the coalesced vertebræ; through the openings in the following coalesced vertebræ,
besides nerves, pass branches from the aorta.

Genital organs. The ovaries are large, paired sacs, posteriorly uniting into
a very short common oviduct, opening as usual between the anal and urinary
orifices.

Also the testes are paired, provided behind with a very short common duct''.

Fistularia.

Exoskeleton.

In the 3 species examined: F.tabacaria L., F. depressa Gthr. and F. petimha
(Lacép.) Jordan & Gilbert the equipment with dermal osseous structures is some-
what different.

I. In F. petimba the skin is rough to the touch (like sand-paper adhering to
the fingers), the whole body being covered with minute booklets. This I have
found to be the case not only with quite small specimens from 130 mm. in

15 281

length * and larger ones from 170 to 385 mm., but in the largest specimens examined,
surpassing 708 mm. in length. In F. tabacaria onlj' the small and middle-sized specimens
up to about 400 mm. in length show minute asperities of the same kind as in the former
species. The smallest specimen at my disposal is figured on PI. VII, fig. 1. It has a
length of 43 mm.; the caudal filament exceeds the body, being about 52 mm. Most
of the body is covered with proportionately large, hooked spineJets, only a longitu-
dinal strip along the middle of each side, the head and the adjoining part of the
body, being naked. The spinelets appearing on the crests of the head and on the
nape are denticulations belonging to the deeper skeletal parts mentioned below. A
much larger specimen (280 mm.) shows still a general coating with small asperities,
most densely developed on the tail; but in two specimens of about 400 mm. the
dorsal part of the body is to a great extent naked, whereas the lateral and ven-
tral parts have their rugosity well developed. On the other side a third specimen,
c. 350 mm., at first sight seems completely naked; but examined with a strong lens
the tail ventrally to the lateral line shows very small asperities. In large specimens,
exceeding 700 mm., I have not been able to detect any booklets at all. Thus F. ta-
bacaria in the fully adult state seems to be naked. The same is probably the case
always with F. depressa, even in the youngest stages; but quite small specimens I
have never seen. The six specimens examined by me, from 250 to 450 mm. in
length, at all events show no trace whatever of asperities.

The spinelets in F. tabacaria and F. petimba are of the same type: a coni-
cal, sharply pointed hook, basally hollow and expanded into an extremely thin
cup-shaped plate, generally with irregularly indented margins. In large specimens
of F. petimba many of the asperities appear conical or blunt, having lost their
hooked point, which has either been absorbed or worn away'.

The dimensions of the asperities in some of the specimens examined are the fol-
lowing :

Fist ularia petimba Diam. of basal plate Height of spine Diam.of spine at base

A. c. 720 mm. 0,160 x 0,176 — 0,240 x 0,288

B. C. 710 — 0,160 X 0,176

C. c. 340 — 0,160 X 0,176
Fistularia tabacaria

A. C. 400 — 0,080X0,088 — 0,128X0,136

B. c. 350 —

C. c. 280 — 0,096 X 0,112

D. C. 43 — 0,080; — 0,208

II. In Fistularia tabacaria longitudinal rows of short spindle-shaped ossicles (of
4 — 8 mm. length in adult specimens), imbedded in the deeper layer of the cutis,

* The length in all cases mentioned is measured from the tip of the snout to the base of the
caudal filament.

0,064

0,043

0,064 — 0,080

0,032

0,064 — 0,096

0,032

0,112

0,016 — 0,024

0,080

0,016 — 0,019

0,080

0,024 — 0,032

0,080 — 0,096

0,008

282 16

form a strip between the posterior end of the coracoidal plate and the ventrals,
and behind these running bacl^wards, below and parallel to the lateral line, to the
end of the tail. In the youngest stage figured (PI. VII, fig. 1) I have not been able
to detect these structures, but in a specimen of about 280 mm. they are discernible,
at all events anterior to the ventrals, and in larger ones they always seem to be
present"*.

III. In Fistularia petimba a single median row of narrow longitudinally keeled
scales, quite superficially imbedded, is found along the back, running from about
the level of the ventrals to the base of the dorsal fin, and behind the latter to
some distance from the end of the tail, where the hindmost scales grow shorter
and finally take the shape of nodules; a similar row is found in the ventral median
line, beginning in front of the ventrals at some distance behind the coracoids and, inter-
rupted by the anus and anal fin, continuing on the tail, stopping at some distance from
the caudal fin. In all large and medium-sized specimens I find these scales present, but
in the smallest specimens (170 and 130 mm.) they seem not yet to be developed''.

IV. Common to all 3 species are the dermal ossifications of the lateral line.
On the short anterior part of the trunk, which is protected by the endoskeletal
parts described below, these ossicles are tube-shaped, on the rest of the body they
gradually take the form of narrow longitudinal shields each provided with a more
or less prominent short keel or spine, most prominent on the tail where the shields
form a kind of serrature. On the caudal filament, on which the lateral line is
continued, the ossifications again take the shape of tubes. In the two species
where dermal asperities are found, the latter may be present in the thin dermal
layer covering the ossicles of the lateral line "'.

Endoskeleton.

The vertebral column does not show any important differences in the
two species examined (F. petimba and tabacaria). In both species I have found
the same number of vertebræ, 56 (4 + 52) abdominal and 31 caudal vertebræ".

The 4 anterior vertebræ (PI. I, fig. 11, PL II, fig- 9) are modified in the same
way as in Aulostoma, being extremely elongated and immovably united by sutures,
forming one piece, which (in petimba) is between '/.=. and '/r, of the whole length
of the column. The spinous processes are united into one longitudinal crest, the
transverse processes into a similar, but broader, almost horizontal plate, the mem-
bers constituting which overlap each other towards the skull while those of the
vertical plate are mostly joined with their margins.

As in Aulostoma the second and third vertebræ are by far the longest, their
anterior and posterior portion being about equally elongated, whereas of the first
vertebra only the posterior part, of the fourth only the anterior part is elongated
and modified.

The first carries articular processes for connection with the skull, the fourth
has on the posterior, unmodified part a small separate transverse process, corre-

17 283

sponding to the posterior one on the following vertebræ. From the anterior corner
of the expanded transverse process of the second vertebra (at * in PI. I, fig. 11) a
strong ligament passes to the posttemporal. The following free abdominal vertebræ
— lilie those of Aulostoma — are provided willi two transverse processes on each
side, but here the posterior process is always small compared with the anterior
(PI. II, fig. 9). The latter is especially large and distally flat and expanded on the
5—6 vertebræ immediately following the coalesced part. On the first caudal the
posterior process suddenly disappears.

The inferior arch and spine form part of the anterior transverse process,
being formed by a process on each side from the base of its lower face. The
anterior 9 — 10 caudal vertebræ, which support the dorsal and anal fins, retain the
transverse processes and are, except the first, provided besides with an upper set
of similar, l)ut shorter and more slender, pointed lateral processes, originating from
the base of the neural arches. Behind these fins no lateral or transverse pro-
cesses occur.

On all the free vertebræ articular processes are present, the anterior ones, as
in Aulostoma, being large and high; on the caudals behind the fins similar inferior
articular processes are developed. The vertebræ of the slender posterior part of
the tail have their upper and lower spinous processes depressed, lying flat and
overlapping caudally; at the end of the tail they rise again, and the last vertebra
takes on the shape of a vertical plate, probably representing two hypui-al bones.

Ribs are wanting.

Connected with the vertebral column are some osseous structures, the anterior
of which — the nuchal plates — are probably to be regarded as modified inter-
neural bones, while the others seem to be ossified tendons or ligaments.

The three nuchal bones are longitudinal plates (firmly) joined together
and over-lapping each other towards the tail; Ihey are through connective tissue
fastened along the vertical lamella representing the modified spinous processes of
the first four elongated vertebræ.

Their upper face is sculptured and more or less visible through the skin;
the lower face is concave and carries on the foremost part of the first plate a
short median keel, fitting into a much broader triangular excavation of the neural
spine of the first vertebra; on the hind part of the second plate a median furrow
begins and gradually deepens on the third into a narrow groove between two low
lamellæ, which are continued into long and thin prolongations, reaching backwards
along the spinous processes of the 9 or 10 anterior free vertebræ.

The three nuchal plates are evidently homologous to the plates in the corre-
sponding position in Aulostoma; and as in the latter genus they are doubtless to
be regarded as modified interneurals, the same interpretation of the nuchal plates
in Fistularia seems justified. Small specific ditTerences are to be met with in the
nuchal plates: in Fist, petimba they are broader than in F. tahacaria; in the latter
the ventral median keel of the first plate (the rudiment of the "stem" of an ordinary

D. K. D. Vidensk. Selsk.Skr., 7. Række, naturvidensk. og mathem. Afd. VIII. 5. 37

284 18

interneural) is much smaller, and the sculpture of the upper face shows a some-
what different pattern.

Behind the unpaired nuchal plates paired, symmetrically arranged structures
appear in the shape of a double series of long, thin, laterally compressed bones
on each side, running along the tips of the spinous processes to the end of the
tail, only interrupted by the dorsal fin (PI. II, fig- 9 td); a similar, ventral, double
series occurs along the inferior spines of the tail, beginning just behind the anal
fin. Each member of both series extends over a number of (4, 5 or more) vertebræ;
the uppermost rows are situated just below the skin (in alcoholic specimens they
may be more or less visible through the skin); in Fistularia pedmba they so to
speak embrace the row of median scales. The two above-mentioned prolongations
from the 3rd nuchal evidently belong to the same system. That these bones are
ossified tendons or ligaments is hardly to be doubted; they apparently are struc-
tures similar in kind to the subdermal ossifications which are so richly developed
in Aulostoma.

Ossifications of a similar nature are further the two large, flat bones, which,
fastened to the epiotics of the skull, are situated along the back, one on each side
of the nuchal plates. The upper face is sculptured on the anterior half and to a
great extent visible through the skin; from the lower face, near the inner margin,
of the posterior half originates a thin vertical lamella, enlarging the surface for
muscular attachment. Like the corresponding bones in Aulostoma these structures
are simply ossifications of tendons of the anterior part of the dorsal lateral muscles.

16 bisegmented interneurals support the dorsal fin. The foremost is short,
about horizontal, and its lower end joins directly the dilated upper end of the
spinous process of the first caudal vertebra; the following are interposed as usual,
singly or in pairs or even three, between thé spinous processes of the supporting
vertebræ. With each lateral face of the first interneural an ossified tendon of the
set in front of the fin is coalesced or firmly united; the like is the case with the
hindmost interneural, a pair of tendons from the set behind the fin being joined
with it.

The anal fin is supported by 15 interneurals, also bisegmented and with
ossified tendons attached to the hindmost member. The first interneural is situated
in front of the inferior spine of the first caudal, the following are interposed
between the spines of 10 vertebræ.

The dorsal fin has 17 — 18 rays, the anterior 3, especially the foremost,
extremely short; the anal fin has 16—17 rays, the anterior 2 very short'-.

The caudal fin has 10 — 11 -j- 2 + 10 — 11 rays, the 2 middle ones being ex-
tremely elongated, forming the peculiar filament. All the rays of the unpaired fins
are laterally flattened, unjointed (but composed of two lateral halves), also the two
composing the caudal filament. Only the caudal rays nearest to the caudal filament,
2 or 3 above and below this, are branched. The lateral line is continued along
the filament almost to the lip, enclosed in a series of slender bony tubes; the
presence of the latter may produce an appearance of joints '^.

19 285

The head (PI. I, fig. 5) is flattened, the long tubiforni snout depressed and al-
most hexangular in transverse section. The postorbital part of the skull is flat
above, with deeply excavated postfrontal region (fig. 6), the interorbital part more
or less concave; the proximal half of the preorbital part is roof-shaped, the distal
half flat, the whole forming a broad and rather thin and flat beak, with sharp
edges and concave underside (fig. 7). The preorbital part is about 2^1-2 times as
long as the resi in F. labacaria, fully 3 limes in F. petimba; the greater part belongs
to the mesethmoid (somewhat less than ' iths); the whole terminal part (somewhat
more than '/i) is made up by the vomer alone (while in Aulostoma the mesethmoid
seen from above reaches along the middle line almost to the end of the snout).

On the upper aspect (fig. 6) the proximal part of the mesethmoid is seen
forming the anterior borders of the nasal openings, while the other borders belong
to the prefrontals (prf); above the nasal pits are found the frontals (fr), reaching
far backwards, about to the posterior end of the skull, here embracing a great
part of the narrow supraoccipital (so); the rest of the latter is enclosed between
the epiotics (ep), which are coalesced behind the supraoccipital into one bone and
form the median "occipital" crest. In the fossa on each side of the base of the
latter is articulated the great ossified tendon (or muscular lateral plate) ; the some-
what swollen anterior, inner margins of the fossæ correspond to the knobs on the
epiotics mentioned in Aulostoma. The end of the "occipital" crest is connected with
the foremost nuchal shield. From above are further seen the postfrontals (pf),
pterotics (sq) and the posttemporals (pt). The latter are in this genus firmly nailed
with the skull, forming sutures with the pterotic, the frontal, epiotic and exoc-
cipital. Besides are seen from above the exoccipitals (eo), broadly meeting from
both sides over the foramen magnum and separated from the supraoccipital
through the coalesced epiotics; finally, the knob-shaped, convex condyle is seen
under the occipital foramen.

Parietals and opisthotics are absent.

From the triangular nasal groove a furrow, corresponding to that on the beak
of Aulostoma, runs to the end of the snout, lodging the anterior part of the supra-
orbital lateral line; the median part of the mesethmoid and the vomer enclosed
between the two furrows is elevated over the level of the lateral parts and sculp-
tured, the pattern being somewhat different in the species examined ; also the
lateral parts of the mesethmoid are sculptured with fine radiating striæ. A row of
slender, extremely thin tubes enclose the lateral line; no rudiment of a nasal bone,
like that of Aulostoma, nor any anlorbital bone is found here; the place taken
up by the latter in Aulostoma is in this genus occupied by the front end of the
prefrontal. The outer face of the prefrontal is deeply hollowed out (fig. 5, prf.);
the upper border of the hollow is sharply serrated in F. petimba (and depressa), only
crenulated in (adult) F. tabacaria.

On the lateral aspect of the brain-case as in Aulostoma a sharp crest (partly
serrated in F. petimba and depressa) separates the upper from the lower surface,
the two articular facets for the hyomandibular (fig. 7) are in the corresponding

37*

286 20

position to those of Aiilostoma, the piootic (pro) is provided with a sharply pointed
ridge where the spine in Aiilostoma is found, the pterotic (sq) is very large, com-
bining below with the parasphenoid (pa) and the basioccipital (ob), the exoccipital
carries a venlrally directed process just in front of the condyle for connection with
the first vertebra — in short, if we take away the posttemporal, almost all the
features and details resemble those of Aiilostoma. Only at the orbit (PI. I, fig. 8)
we meet with some differences, especially in the extent of the alisphenoid (al),
which here does not project laterally so far that it becomes visible as part of the
postorbital process; on the other hand the alisphenoid is horizontally produced
medially to meet its fellow from the opposite side, forming together with the
prootic the bridge roofing over the "myodome". The anterior part of the "myodome"
(the muscular fossa) is divided by a vertical lamella (1), rising from the excavated
upper face of the parasphenoid ; it appears like a process from the latter, but
represents perhaps a basisphenoid (?). Below, (PI. I, fig. 7) the basioccipital (ob)
and the posterior part of the parasphenoid (pa) are flatly rounded, not keelshaped
as in Aulostoma, and in front the parasphenoid reaches a good deal farther than
in the latter, ending as a slender point, hut as in A. without joining the vomer.
The vomer (vo) has at the extreme anterior end a kind of knob from which starts
ventrally a short median ridge or keel, carrying a few teeth, tapering behind; the
hindmost part of the vomer is a slender point. The greater part of the under sur-
face of the beak is here made up by the mesethmoid (mes).

Infraorbitals are wanting.

The 3 opercular bones (PI. I, fig. 5) show in the main the same features as in
Aiilostoma the elongated posterior part of the suboperculum (s) is here divided
into two long and slender branches, while in A. it is entire. The lamelliform
interoperculum (io) surpasses in front the mandibular articulation.

The hyomandibular (by) is still more sloping forwards than in Aiilostoma;
with the lower cartilaginous end it is connected with the horizontally placed styli-
form posterior end of the symplectic (sy). The greater part of the latter forms a
vertical plate, the upper margin of which joins the skull, its posterior corner being
firmly attached through ligament to the lower face of the prefrontal; in front the
symplectic joins the metapterygoid (mt) in a long oblique suture, broadly over-
lapping the outer face of the metapterygoid; below, it unites with the preoperculum
(pro) in a horizontal, straight suture, and, in front, in an oblique suture with the
quadrate (qu).

The quadrate is very long, the outer face with an elevated, sculptured part,
lying in continuation of the sculptured part of the preoperculum (pro), and in
front carrying the articular head for the lower jaw; the upper, deeper situated part
of the quadrate is smooth and joins the deep parts of the entopterygoid (ept) and
metapterj'goid (mt).

The palatine (pa) is small, with the relatively large maxillary process directed
forwards; it does not meet its fellow from the opposite side; behind it is simply

21 287

pointed, not forked as in Aulosioma, and only immediately behind the maxillary
process is found the connection with the vomer, below the somewhat broadened
snout-end of the latter; its upper, inner margin is joined to the pointed front end
of the entopterygoid. As in Aiilostoiua an ectopterygoid is wanting, being replaced
by that part of the entopterygoid which unites wilh the oblique front margin of
the quadrate. The upper margin of the entopterygoid is strongly thickened, its
surface sculptured (fig. 5); it joins the lateral edge of the cranial beak, formed by
the vomer and anterior part of the mesethmoid; along the remaining edge of the
latter it is continued by the similarly thickened and projecting upper margin of
the metapterygoid, which reaches to the prefrontal. In F. petimha (and depressa)
this thickened part is strongly serrated, in F. tabacaria (adult) only crenulated.

On the inner face of the pterygoids no teeth are developed, but each palatine
carries a row of teeth along its outer margin.

The obliquely ascending part of the preoperculum (fig. 5, pro) covers almost
the whole lateral and the front face as well of the hyomandibular; the hyomandi-
bular foramen is quite near to the articulation with the skull. The outer face of
the preoperculum is beautifully ornamented wilh narrow ridges, crenulated or even
more or less spiny.

The premaxilla (i) is small, pointed behind, and provided with a row of teeth;
the maxilla (mx) is relatively large, broadening behind.

The articulation for the lower jaw is situated rather far behind the end of
the snout, about at a level wilh the upper suture between the vomer and the
mesethmoid. The mandible, therefore, which as in Aulostoma reaches farther for-
wards than the snout, is considerably elongated; it is composed like that of
Aulostoma, with the small angular (an) in a similar place at the lower border,
rather far from the posterior end. The upper margin of the dental, in front of its
ascending part, its provided with teeth.

Branchial apparatus (PI. II). As in Aulostoma the hyoid (fig. 5 — 6) is
relatively short, and almost the whole gill-bearing part is situated behind the
articulation of the hyoid to the skull. The hyoid appears at first sight to lack one
of the typical elements, the stylohyal; but it cannot be doubted that this part
really is present only in a reduced state and fused to the epiliyal (eh). The latter
is the largest piece, especially if seen from the outer side (fig. 5); the ceratohyal
(ch) appears proportionately somewhat larger and the lower hypohyal (by') some-
what smaller than is the case in Aulostoma. There are five branchiostegal rays,
the lowermost very slender, fastened to the inner face of the ceratohyal, the others
to the outer face, one to the same piece, the three to the epihyal; they increase
in size upwards, the uppermost being especially stout and divided into two branches.

The glossohyal (fig. 1, gl) is extremely long, slender and laterally compressed;
in length it surpasses the whole branchial apparatus; the urohyal also is long,
angular and increasing in thickness behind, where it reaches the front ends of the
coracoids, in F. tabacaria coossifying with the latter.

288

The first basibranchial, cartilaginous in Aulostoma, is here a bone, with broad
and flat front end (PI. II, fig. 1 coM; it is the only basibranchial present.

The gill arches are completely smooth, without any trace of gill-rakers or
teeth. The first arch is composed of 3 parts, a very short, clumsy hypobranchial,
a long ceratobranchial and a slender epibranchial; the second arch consists of 4
parts, a pharyngobranchial (ph") provided with teelh being present in front of the
slender epibranchial ; the third arch has also 4 parts ; its very slender epibranchial
is separated from the ceratobranchial and articulates distally both with ils own
and the following pharyngobranchial; the first (ph'") sends a process forwards
along the whole length of the preceding pharyngobranchial; behind this process it
is flat and beset with teeth. The fourth arch lacks the hypobranchial and the
epibranchial, its tooth-bearing pharyngobranchial being supported by the preceding
arch alone.

The fifth, the lower pharyngeal is richly provided with teeth.

As in Aulostoma the gills are continued on the pharynx wall, supported by
cartilaginous prolongations from the ceratohyals (PI. II, fig. 2).

The reduction of branchial skeletal parts in Fistularia seems about to be
equal to that found in Aulostoma; only the epibranchials of the second and third
arches appear less reduced, as the latter alone is separated from the ceratobranchial.

The following tabular view of the branchial apparatus in the two genera will
immediately show the fundamental likeness ".

Aulostoma.

Gill arch

Basibranch.

Hypobr.

Ceratobr.

Epibr.

Pharyngobr.

(+)

III

-1-

Fistularia.

Gill arch

Basibranch.

Hypobr.

Ceratobr.

Epibr.

Pharyngobr.

III

-!-

-1-

The shoulder girdle (PI. Ill, fig. 8,9) has been fully described by Starks
(55 p. 630), and only a few remarks need be added.

23 289

The clavicular aixh consists of 3 bones, a supraclavicle being present.

The posttemporal (PI. I, fig. 5 pt) is suturally united to the skull (vide supra);
its outer margin is sculptured, with granules (F. tabacaria) or spines (F. petimba,
depressa); about midway between the occipital suture and the posterior end the
inner face shows a knob (PI. I, fig. 7 k) or rugosity for muscular attachment and
for a strong ligament, going to the front part of the first vertebra, corresponding
to the bony fork described in Aiilostoma; the ligament passing from the hind end
of the posttemporal to the anterior corner of the transverse process of the second
vertebra is also found in Fistularia. The supraclavicle is short; it has a shallow
concavity at the upper end for articulation with the posttemporal, and the lower
end covers part of the outside of the clavicle.

The part of the clavicle (fig. 9, cl) corresponding to the sculptured plate in
Aulostoma is small (just observable through the skin, but hidden below the oper-
cular membrane); under its upper posterior corner the clavicle carries the long
postclavicle (pel), which broadens behind into a plate, partly sculptured on its
outer face and more or less visible through the skin. Distally the clavicle bifur-
cates into an outer (anterior) (o) and an inner (posterior) (i) branch; along the in-
side of the clavicle and that of its inner branch is attached the scapular arch.

The latter consists as usually of the scapula (sc) and the coracoid (co). The
first encloses the wide scapular foramen; but the part encircling the anterior
border of the foramen is only very thin cartilage (easily lost in drying, probably,
therefore, overlooked by Starks). The inferior margin of the coracoid expands
into a large plate, broadening behind the pectoral fin, the outer face being to a
great extent sculptured and visible through the skin; anteriorly it combines with
both branches of the clavicle, ending in front of the outer (anterior) branch of the
latter as a flat, pointed process, to which the urohyal is fastened. The part
between the clavicular branches unites with its fellow from the opposite side, a
particularly firm connection being established at the level of the inner (posterior)
branch (fig. 8).

The four pterygials (ba) are well developed, similar to those in Aulostoma;
the uppermost, rather small one is fastened to the scapula, the remaining three
are larger, laterally compressed and somewhat hour-glass-shaped in outline '\

The pectoral fin has 15 — 16 soft unbranched rays, the uppermost rudi-
mentary; the upper (4—5) rays are not jointed, as the rest are.

The pelvic bones, abdominal in position, are still farther apart from each
other than in Aulostoma. Each is a flat bone with the exterior margin rounded in
outline, the inferior straight. There are 6 ventral fin rays, the outer unbranched
but jointed like the rest, which all are distally branched.

Visceral anatomy.

There are four complete gills and a large pseudobranchia, a slit between the
fourth gill-arch and the lower pharyngeals.

290 24

The alimentär}' canal is for the greater part of its extent without mesen-
ter}'; only about the last 4th part is provided with a mesenterj'; the whole alimen-
tary canal is without curvatures, completely straight; compared with thai of Aulo-
sioina it is much longer, the anal opening lying much farther behind the ventrals,
just in front of the anal fin as in most fishes. The oesophagus and stomach form
together a long spindle-shaped part, by far the widest portion of the whole tract;
the posterior pyloric part of the stomach is more muscular and narrow, sharply
marked off from the intestine. Internally oesophagus and stomach are provided
with longitudinal folds; the length of both together is two-thirds ofthat of the rest
of the intestinal canal. The small intestine sends out from its front end one, conical,
not very long appendix pylorica; the intestine commences about at a level behind
the ventral fins, is widest anteriorly and tapers quite gradually backwards; the
posterior fourth part is the rectum; the boundary between it and the small intestine
is not very pronounced externally, no sudden change in width being found. As
just mentioned the rectum and hindmost part of the adjacent intestine are suspended
by a mesentery. In the pyloric part of the stomach of a large F. petimba from the
Formosa Strait I found 8 small fishes, the longest ca. 50 mm-, all belonging to the
same species of the genus Bregmaceros, and more or less digested; of those most
digested the otoliths were completely intact. *

The liver is small reaching only over half the length of the stomach, not
lobed, pointed posteriori)', covering somewhat more of the ventral right side of the
stomach than of the left. Quite near the posterior end the right margin has an
incision for the gall-bladder, from which the biliary duct runs backwards following
the intestinal artery and the portal vein, enclosed together with these in a peri-
toneal fold, like a kind of low mesentery along the stomach; it enters the intestine
on its ventral side, imniediatelj' behind the base of the appendix pylorica.

The air-bladder is about twice the length of the liver, reaching from below
the first of the coalesced vertebrae to the end of the last; here the main cavity of
the bladder stops, but its posterior end sends out a pair of long, conical blind-sacs
tapering to a point backwards and lying one on each outer side of the kidneys
below the long and expanded transverse processes of the anterior free vertebrae;
they are somewhat asymmetrical, the right reaching just behind the ventral fins,
the left stopping just in front of them. About in the middle, a little behind it, the
ventral wall of the main chamber contains a large, ovoid "red body"; at this spot
the under-face of the air-bladder is tightly fastened to the stomach through a short
"stalk", containing the principal vessels for the "rete mirabile", branches from the
arteria coeliaca and the portal vein. The heart, the air-bladder, except its two
prolongations, the whole liver and the greater part of the stomach, except its
pyloric part, are enclosed in the "armoured" part of the trunk, protected on the
sides and below by the large postclavicula and the coracoidal plates. The heart
is situated between the distal branches of both clavicles and over the front ends of
both coracoidal plates, the bulbus arteriosus lying over the hind end of the urohyal.
■ Also Kner (28 b) p. 29 (2Ü0) has found a small tisli in the stomach of a Fistularia.

25 291

The aorta crosses obliquely over the ventral face of the front end of the first
vertebra, in the furrow seen on the lirst corpus (PI. I, fig. 11**), to the left side
where it is lying along the coalesced corpora, keeping up this asymmetrical posi-
tion to the end of the body cavity, where it enters the subvertebral caudal canal.

The arteria coeliaca originates from the aorta a short way behind the entrance
of the last branchial vein (or arteria revehens) ventral ly where the arteries to the
pectoral fins leave laterally; it passes to the right side of the oesophagus below
the front end of the air-bladder and further along the right side of the stomach,
giving off branches to the latter, the airbladder and the liver; at the gall-
bladder it gives branches to the "red body" and follows the same course as the
portal vein and biliary duct on to the front end of the pyloric appendage, where it
still follows along the appendix with the biliary duct to the end of the latter
and then separates from the portal vein, each of these vessels occupying in their
further course backwards opposite faces of the intestine; in the mesentery of the
hind part of the latter the arteria coeliaca leaves the intestinal wall and passing
obliquely through the mesentery enters the dorsal body wall between the two
gonads and anastomoses with the aorta.

The right cardinal vein is very large; imbedded in the right part of the
kidney it enters from behind the coalesced part of the vertebral column, lying to
the right side of the corpora, and receiving branchlets across the corpora from the
opposite side, one for each vertebra. The left cardinal vein is wanting altogether.
Along the left side of the coalesced vertebræ, imbedded with the aorta in a silvery
sheath, a small vein runs forwards, anteriorly crossing over the right cardinal vein
and going to the head. Small veinlets passing through the nerve-holes of the
coalesced vertebræ join the right cardinal vein and the small "vertebral vein" on
the left side. No branches from the aorta seem to enter the nerve-holes.

The kidneys are coalesced into one body reaching from the hind end of the
body cavity to the last of the coalesced vertebræ. This body contains two symmetri-
cally arranged urinarj' ducts, thus proving the originally paired condition of the
kidneys. The ducts unite to a common, very short part opening as usual behind
the (female) genital pore; there is no urinary bladder.

Dorsally over the front end of the air-bladder, just below the anterior end
of the first vertebra, a small pyriform body is found on the left side, but nothing
corresponding to it on the right side. I suppose it to be the remnant of the left
pronephros, and a silvery thread, going backwards from it, I assume to be the
rudiment of the pronephric duct (the condition of the old spirit material was such
that a histological examination would scarcely give any reliable information).

Along the outer side of the aorta, dorsally to the air-bladder, runs the left
vagus-nerve accompanied by the left sympathetic; the right vagus and the right
sympathetic follow in a similar manner the right vena cardinalis; from the vagus
and spinal nerves and probably also from the sympathetic branches are given oil'
to the wall of the air-bladder.

D. K. D. Vidensk. Selsk. Slil-., 7. Hii-kke, naturvidensk. og ni;illiem. Afil, VIII. ."j. 38

292 2R

Through the nerve-holes in the coalesced vertebræ only spinal nerves pass out.

A transverse commissure connects the two sympathetic trunks just in front of
the rudimentary pronephros.

Genital organs. The ovaries appear to be unpaired, suspended by a
mesoarium to the left side of the dorsal body wall. They are bandshaped and
reach from the posterior end of the body cavity to a short distance behind the
beginning of the intestine. Closer examination shows that two ovaries are present:
posteriorly they unite into a short common oviduct with the usual opening behind
the anus; above the rectum their double nature may be noticed, and as stated
above the intestinal artery passes between them; but soon they externally appear
quite coalesced ; transverse sections reveal their double nature, the inner cavity
being divided by a thin vertical partition. The numerous ovigerous lamellæ in
each half leave part of the wall of the ovarial chambers free; in the middle of
the fused ovarial band this free part is lateral, but behind and in front of the
middle it may be more ventral. The testes externally resemble the ovaries,
suspended by a mesorchium in the same position, band-shaped and of the like
dimensions; transverse sections show that the band is made up of two closelj'
joined gonads.

The peritoneum is silvery.

The axillary pore, behind the pectoral fin, mentioned by Günther appears to
be the opening of the duct of a secreting gland. The latter is richly provided
with blood vessels^".

Syngnathidæ.

In the second Volume (Part 2) of his great work on Fossil Fishes, published
between 1833 and 1843 (p. 275), L. Agassiz states that he has not been able to give
any special information about the skeleton of this interesting group for want of
preparations fit for examination ; neither could he fill up this blank through the
literature: "car je ne trouve nulle part une description détaillée du squelette et des
écailles des Lophobranches".

Regarding the skeleton very nearly the same might be said to day: a com-
plete description, accompanied by the necessary illustrations is up to the present
date not to be found anywhere; although Duméril in 1870 gave a monograph or at
all events a detailed account of this group based on the material of the Musée
d'Histoire naturelle at Paris and of the whole literature then available*. The fullest
and most correct information is that to be found in the Scandinavian literature.
As early as 1850 Kröyer in his "Fishes of Denmark" has given several good and

' Second (52) p. 619 says 1873: "Auguste Duméril a rassemblé dans sa quatrième sous-classe tous
les documents que nous possédons sur les lophobranches. J'espérais trouver dans ce travail consciencieux,
des observations nouvelles sur les parties centrales des pégases et des syngnathes, mais ces nouveaux
documents manquent encore à l'ichthyologie .... A. Duméril se contente de dire que le squelette des
lophobranches ne ditïère en rien d'essentiel de celui des poissons osseux. "

27 293

correct descriptions; later Lilljeborg (1891) and Smitt (1895) have supplied more
or less complete accounts of the skeleton; regarding the composition of the skull,
these authors especially Smitt have interpreted several features more correctly than
any previous or later author; but they have not avoided some grave errors.

I may add that these Scandinavian authors also give much good information
about the anatomy of the soft parts, and it ought to be mentioned that in 1833
Retzius already described the main anatomical features of the most common
species of northern pipe-fishes so completely, that in several points the investigations
published as late as 1902 by Huot do not contain much that is really new. The
few remarks about the osteology in Huot's paper contain several errors; and the
same may be said of the papers published by Mc. Murrich, Schaff, Cope, Jordan

& EVERMANN, SwINNERTON CtC.

As to the systematic position of the Lophobranclis I shall here only mention
that Cuvier in 1817 (Règne animal 1. Edit. II. p. 155) gave them rank as one of his
8 Orders or main divisions of the Class Pisces; he did so essentially on account
of their gills. This elevated rank and isolated position has often been attacked ;
every one who has really examined their gills, has seen that these do not sub-
stantially differ from those of other Teleosteans; Cuvier himself has realized this
fact, and so did Rathke, Retzius, Ryder and several others. Nevertheless their
isolated position is still maintained by many authors. Without entering further
into any discussion of the systematic point I might only mention that in 1908
(23 b) I have expressed as my view, that the true Lophobranchii (or Syngnathidæ),
the Solenostomidæ, the Fistularidæ, Aulostomidæ and the Centriscidæ form one
natural group; and I have briefly pointed out some characters in the cranial struc-
ture which seem to me to raise this view above doubt.

The true Pipefishes, the Syngnathidæ, are a fairly homogenous family, natur-
ally divided into two groups, one for which the well-known genera Siphonostama
and Syngnathus, the common pipefishes of European and N. American coasts, may
serve as types, and one containing forms such as Hippocampus, the Sea-horse.

Proceeding to the osteology of this family, I think it most convenient to de-
scribe in some detail one type, and afterwards to point out some of the more
essential features in which other forms deviate from this type. As type we may
consider Siphonostoma typhle, a species which is to be found everywhere in the
zostera-region of the Danish coasts, or at similar localities of the Baltic and the
North Sea.

Siphouostoma typhle (L.).
Exoskeleton.

The dermal armour of Siphonostoma and other Syngnathids has often been
described and its main features, I think, are so well known that a recapitulation
here seems superfluous. Only regarding the nuchal plates and the composition of

38-

294 28

Ihe foremost "rings" of the trunk have I found it necessary to enter into details
below in treating of the endoskeietal parts closely connected with them.

The arrangement of the dermal plates has been described by Kröyer (29 p.
683), Peters (41 p. 104), Duméril (12a p. 143, 12b p. 478), E. Moreau (36 p. 28),
Schaff (5ü), Lilljehokg (37 p. 437), Smitt (54 p. 675), Huot (19 p. 2Ü2), * Duncker (13
p. 18, p. 62), a. o.; the shape and structure of the single plates, their relation to the
layers of the skin etc. are especially mentioned by Schaff, an account of their
first development is given by Kasanzeff (24 p. 854).

The presence of "lateral-line organs" was first shown by Duncker (13 p. 22,
PI. 3j; but as these organs — the existence of which I can confirm — are not en-
closed in any canal, and some of them may appear on places, where the typical
lateial line does not occur (e. g. on the operculum), it seems open to doubt if they
really represent the true lateral line or some of the other dermal sensory organs
found in teleosts.

Endoskeleton.

The vertebral column consists of 56 vertebrae; the anterior 19 I count as
abdominal, as the front outUne of the caudal armour, behind the anal opening, lies
just beneath the middle of the 20th vertebra ; this vertebra besides supports the anal
fin and sometimes its transverse processes are joined to form the foremost inferior
arch; but sometimes this is the case with the next vertebra. The three anterior
abdominal vertebrae are immovably joined together (PI. IV, fig. 4), their neural
arches being firmly connected basally through sutures, with long dentations, while
their corpora simply meet in the same way as those of all the remaining vertebrae.
When macerated (even in hydrate of potassium) the three anterior vertebrae, there-
fore, always cohere, whereas the others drop off". The immobility is strengthened
by the expanded clavicle, which is firmly united with the transverse processes of
the two foremost vertebrae.

The first vertebra (PI. IV, fig. 3, 4) is shorter than any of the following; in
front it carries a pair of strong processes (a), articulated with the skull and behind
continuing as wing-shaped transverse processes; the outer margin of the latter is
embraced by folds of the anterior part of the clavicle. The spinous process is a
low, elongated crest. The base of the neural arch has behind a deep triangular
incision on each side, into which fits a long process from the next arch, corre-
sponding to the process of the first vertebra; in this way the stiff connection men-
tioned above is brought about. The second vertebra carries on its middle a stout
transverse process, somewhat bifid at the outer end, which is firmly bound by
ligament to the clavicle. The neural arch and its spine are similar to those of the
first vertebra.

The transverse process of the third vertebra is longer and more slender, the

* The small "intermedial" scutes which occur in most genera of Syngnathids, e. g. Siphonostoma,
Hyngiiathus, Nerophis, have been overlooked as such by Huot and mistaken for lateral-line organs.

29 295

neural arch only in front adapted for suturai connection with the preceding vertebra ;
the connection with the following being the same as that between the remaining
abdominal vertebrae. These are in the main of one type, except the hindmost.
They are long and slender, witli long, flat and narrow, generally pointed trans-
verse processes; the base of this process broadens gradually along the anterior half
of the vertebra, more and more as we pass backwards, on the hindmost vertebrae
almost reaching the front margin.

The spinous process is a low thin crest, in the middle over the level of the
transverse process rising a little to form a vertical point. Articular processes are
wanting, at most indicated as feeble undulations on the margins of the neural
arches.

The hindmost abdominal vertebra (the 19th, PI. IV, fig. 6, 7) supports the front
part of the dorsal fin, but in different individuals a greater or lesser part; in struc-
tuie, therefore, it corresponds to the 8 following caudal vertebrae, supporting the
remaining greater part of the dorsal fin, but with the exception that it has no
inferior arch. The triangular transverse process reaches basally along the whole
anterior half of the vertebra, and backwards it extends along the lower margin of
the corpus in the shape of a wing, rounded in outline (v). The spinous process
as in the preceding vertebrae forms a thin longitudinal crest, but the upper margin
of the latter carries some deep and narrow incisions (in the case figured two),
strengthened along their margins with thickened ribs. Into each incision fits an
interspinous bone. In some cases only the foremost interspinous bone is fastened
to the posterior margin of the spinous process and for the rest to the following,
the first caudal. The 8 (or 9) anterior caudals (PI. IV, fig. 8, 9) show the same
type as the last abdominal; only they are shorter, and the anterior extension of
the transverse process is on the same level as the posterior wing; besides they
possess inferior arches. The latter originates from the underside of the transverse
process proper (fig. 9), near its hind margin; on the first caudal vertebra the distal
ends of the arch may be separate and in position oblique towards the tail, while
all the following form a short, vertical, inferior spine. Very often the first caudal
vertebra has no inferior arch or only an indication of its basal part. The upper
spinous processes each support 4 or 3 interspinous bones, the 8th, and sometimes
also the second, 5. On the 8th caudal the posterior transverse wing is narrow and
on the following it is wanting; evidently this structure is developed together with
the muscles for the dorsal fin. As is well known the principal motor apparatus
in the Syngnathids is the dorsal fin; to produce the powerful undulations of the
latter the muscles to the fin rays are greatly developed, forming a voluminous
layer inside the body muscles, separated from the latter by a pigmented membrane
of connective tissue; the fin-muscles belonging to the outer part of this layer are
basally attached to the transverse processes and their wing-like expansions. The
remaining caudal vertebrae behind the dorsal fin are of one type, long and slender,
with low dorsal crest, in the middle provided with a small vertical spine; the trans-

29fi 30

verse processes originate from (he middle of the vertebra as short, flat triangles,
pointing somewhat forwards; the posterior margin is thickened, the anterior quite
thin. The inferior arch is situated under the middle, is short and so slender that
the large vessels are to a great extent unprotected by skeleton. The verlebræ de-
crease in size evenly backwards; the last vertebra (PI. IV, fig. 10) has no inferior
arch, and immediately behind the transverse process it divides into two hypural
bones, the upper of which is fused to the urostyle.

Of all the vertebræ, except the 3 anterior, the neural arches are basally pierced
by more or fewer rounded openings.

Ribs are completely wanting. The distal ends of the transverse processes
are by connective tissue fastened to the lateral plates of the dermal armour.

Interspinous bones. As modified interneurals may possibly be regarded
the nuchal plates. The anterior smaller one covers the interspace between the
occipital crest of the skull and the first spinous process; the posterior, larger and
more elongated shield is situated over the spinous processes of the first and second
vertebræ (PI. IV, fig. 5). The anterior nuchal plate is provided with a median
ventral keel, which — at all events in some individuals — may project rather far
down in front of the spinous process of the first vertebra; the posterior also car-
ries a median, but longitudinally cleft keel, embracing the lengthened spinous pro-
cesses of the two anterior vertebra^. Thus these plates to a certain degree recall the
structures found in Aiilostonia where the interspinous origin of the nuchal plates
is hardly to be doubted, a transition being found there through an uninterrupted
series of structures gradually taking on the shape of ordinary interneurals. In
Fistularia this transition is lost, but still some traces of their origin seem preserved,
and besides the close relationship between the genera Fistularia and Aulostoma
speak in favour of the interpretation accepted here. Now, in Siphonostoma typhle
the presence of the ventral keel may indicate the last trace of the interspinous
nature, but it may be of quite independent origin, and it is to be remembered that
in some Syngnathids, e. g. Hippocampus, the anterior nuchal plate has no keel
whatever, and that the relationship with the Aulostomidae is not very close.
Furthermore the development of the embryo does not prove anything with regard
to the nature of these shields. I have not been able to find them in a cartilagi-
nous condition; they appear to originate as bone in connection with the spinous
processes, from which they seem to be detached; but, on the other hand, they ap-
pear very early, before the median dermal plates are ossified.

The interspinous bones of the dorsal fin are bisegmented (Pl.IV,fig. 1,8).
The proximal (basal) segment is thin, the longitudinal muscular crest is wanting
or slightly indicated, the cartilaginous axis richly developed. Close to the upper
(cartilaginous) end it sends out a flat wing-like expansion to each side, or two,
separated by an incision, sometimes almost closed to a foramen. Upon these ex-
pansions rest the medial margins of the upper lateral plates of the dermal armour,
firmly attached by connective tissue (PI. IV, fig. 12). Through the narrow apertures

297

dermal skeleton pass out the tendons
segment is a small roundish cartilage,

left by the interspinous expansions and the
of the fin-muscles to the rays. The distal
embraced by the cleft base of the fin-ray; it articulates with two neighbouring in-
terneurals, and the whole series of these small cartilages is bound together by a
ligament. The groups of interspinous bones attached to each vertebra are more
or less fan-shaped; the median or the two median bones are generally straight,
the anterior and posterior somewhat curved at their upper ends. The whole series
produces a curious aspect, quite unique among teleosts.

It appears that in the larva the arrangement of these parts is more like that
usually found in fishes, and is altered during growth. In larvæ from the brood-
pouch the spinous processes of these vertebræ are only represented by the median
rib just over the transverse process, and the cartilaginous interneurals are almost
parallel between two simple spines.

The interneurals of the anal fin are proximally fused into one piece
(PI. IV, fig. 11); distally there are two branches each provided with similar expan-
sions as the dorsal interneurals; the expansions are joined to the two anterior
plates of the inferior lateral row; these plates lie in continuation of the middle-
lateral plates of the trunk. As in the dorsal fin the tendons for the anal fin
muscles pass through the narrow openings left by the internerneurals and dermal
armour. The two confluent interneurals are connected through muscles with the
lower face of the transverse processes from the foremost caudal vertebra; in spe-
cimens in which this vertebra has an inferior arch developed, the anal interneural
is situated in front of the latter. The muscles constitute a narrow, fairly long and
powerful bundle, which is easily separated into three, one for each fin-ray; to the
inner side of this bundle are found the short and weak muscles originating from
the interneurals. Outside the distal ends of the anal interneurals three small car-
tilages are found each embraced by its fin-ray; thus these interspinous bones are also
bisegmented.

The fin-rays of the dorsal and anal fins are unjointed, and unbranched,
like those of the pectoral fins; the rays of the caudal fin are all jointed, but
unbranched; there are no short rays at the upper and lower margins of the cau-
dal fin.

The number of rays is: D: 34—37; A: 3; C: 10.

Cranial skeleton. As in the other members of the group under examina-
tion the anterior part of the skull is highly elongated, Pl.V, figs. 1—4. The nuchal
face as in Aiilostoma and Fistularia slopes backwards so that the bones circum-
scribing the occipital foramen are visible from above. On the upper aspect (fig. 1)
are seen: the supraoccipital (so), epiotics (ep), posttemporals (pt), pterotics (sq),
frontals (fr), postfrontals (pf), prefrontals (prf), meselhmoid (mes) and vomer (vo).
Along the middle of the last two bones a narrow, sharp crest is present. In front
of the slightly expanded snout-end of the vomer is found a small cartilage, con-
nected with the premaxilla and maxilla. The cartilage is a remnant of the contin-

298 32

uous ethmoidal cartilage found in the embryo and larva; during growth and ossi-
fication the cartilage is replaced by bones, only this small anterior median part
and two basal lateral parts, each enclosed in the prefrontal (ectethmoid), being
preserved.

The supraoccipital is in front wedged in between the frontals, behind it sends
out a short, downwards directed nuchal process, connected through ligament with
the anterior nuchal plate. The posterior margin of the epiolic projects like a crest,
below which the strong tendon for part of the anterior lateral muscles is attached.
Parietals and opisthotics are wanting.

The mesethmoid takes up more than half the length of the snout. The
posttemporal (pt) is connected with the epiotic, pterotic and exoccipilal; its
pointed posterior end is bound to the front end of the clavicle by connective
tissue.

On the lateral aspect the same bones are seen (PI. V, fig. 4). On the posterior
aspect (fig. 3) the exoccipitals meet each other above the foramen magnum as in
Aulostoma and Fistularia and latei-ally each exoccipital projects into a process be-
low the foramen, carrying an articular face for the process on the first vertebra.
The condylar face is conicaliy hollowed as usually; the margins of the hollow are
stouter than the corresponding margins of the vertebrae.

On the lower aspect of the skull (PI. V, fig. 2) the very large pterotics (sq) are
particularly conspicuous, ventrally reaching the basioccipital (ob) and preventing
the exoccipitals from meeting the prootics (pro). Between part of the latter and
the basioccipital (ob) a cartilage is seen. The foramina for the nerves in the pro-
otics are situated quite as in Aulostoma and Fistularia, those of the 5th nerve in
the front face, towards the orbit, those of the seventh laterally (as typical in true
Acanthopterygians); and the anterior articular surface for the hyomandibular also
here belongs partly to the postfrontai, partly to the prootic, while the posterior be-
longs to the pterotic alone. A sharp ridge divides the part of the prootic visible
from below from that looking towards the orbit; with this ridge a ligament from
the hyomandibular is connected.

The parasphenoid (pa) is elongated, reaching farther in front than in Aulo-
stoma and Fistularia, and connects in a long triangular suture with the vomer; it
possesses a considerable orbital part, joining the frontal above and lateially bound-
ing the fossa for the inferior musculi recti of the eye. A true "myodoma" is not
developed, the prootics from both sides not meeting completely to form a bony roof
over the origin of the eye-muscles.

The front end of the vomer is somewhat heart-shaped, edentulous; for a long
way it is joined to the concave under face of the mesethmoid and its needle-
shaped hind part reaches along the parasphenoid to the level of the prefrontals.
The orbital wall of the brain-case is formed by the parasphenoid, prootic,
postfrontal, alisphenoid (the latter, being small, is easily overlooked) and the
frontal.

33 299

There is no canal for the lateral line in any of the cranial bones, nor in the
preoperculuui and preorbitals described below.

The mouth-parts are fairly large, except the intermaxilla (PI. V, üg. 4, 5 i); the
latter and particularly the maxilla (mx) is bound by strong ligaments to the snout-
cartilage, the maxilla besides to the vomer and — as usual — to the maxillary
process of the palatine. The mandible has three parts: the articular (ar) and dental
(d) form together a large process for a branch of the tendon of the M. adductor
mandibulœ (another is attached to the maxilla); the angular (an) is small and
as usual connected by a strong ligament — here a long one — with the interoper-
culum.

Teeth are completely wanting on all the bones of the mouth and pharynx,
also on the branchial arches. Of the suspensory parts the hyomandibular (hy) is
stout, fairly short and, contrary to the case in Aulostoma and Fistularia, very little
sloping forwards. On the upper inner margin it has a wing-like expansion, joined
by ligament to the prootic as mentioned above; the lower end is cartilaginous
and connected with the proximal part of the horizontal sympleclic (sy); the latter
is joined to a process on the inner side of the slylohyal by a long ligament (1).
The symplectic bifurcates into two branches; the lower fork is horizontal, continuing
the horizontal stem and enclosing a cartilaginous axis; in front it joins the quadrate
(qu); the upper fork is an oblique plate connected with the two antorbitals (ao, ao')
(particularly with the posterior, the preorbital proper), replacing so to speak the
metapterygoid, which is completely wanting. The upper branch of the symplectic
is bound to the skull by connective tissue.

The quadrate (qu) is much elongated, its outer face convex, the inner concave,
behind it is pointed, broadening anteriorly; the front margin, contrary to the case
in Aulostoma and Fistularia, slopes from behind forwards. The outer face is sculp-
tured and carries a longitudinal ridge from the posterior end to the articular head
for the mandible. The upper margin is for a long way not in contact with the
pterygoid, a feature not to be found in the genera hitherto described. Only two
pterygoids ai-e developed; the ectopterygoid (ect), bent, with the front part joining
the palatine (pa), the hind part connecting with the entopterygoid (ept) and the
anterior margin of the quadrate; the latter also joins the anterior broad part of the ent-
opterygoid, which tapers backwards to a point without reaching to the symplectic.
The outside of the entopterygoid is covered by the anterior preorbital bone (ao'),
except in front, their upper margins being joined.

The short palatine (pa) carries a prominent maxillary process. The preoper-
culuui (pro) has a short ascending part covering part of the front face of the hyo-
mandibular and extending to the cheek, embracing the origin of the cheek-muscle;
the horizontal part is long, in front joining the posterior preorbital (ao) and — with
a long oblique suture —the quadrate; the inner face caries a horizontal ridge con-
necting with the symplectic; (behind and) below the cartilaginous proximal end of
the latter is the articular fossa for the stylohyal. The whole outer face is sculp-

1). K. 1). \ idcii^k. Selsli. Sl.r., 7. Hække, naturvidensk. og matheni. Aid. Vlll. 5. 39

300 34

tured, a longitudinal ridge, beginning from about the posterior angle, and continued
by the above-described ridge on the quadrate, separates the cheek face proper from
the inwards sloping under face.

The typical three opercular bones are present; but the suboperculum (s) is
concealed by the operculum (o) (PI. V, fig. 5), and the interoperculum (io) is gener-
ally only to be seen from below.

The operculum is large, vaulted, its upper anterior angle, outside the articula-
tion with the hyomandibular, is drawn out into a muscle-process; the concave
inner face shows a strong muscle-ridge, starting from the lower margin of the arti-
cular fossa. The suboperculum is extremely thin, sickle-shaped, hidden by the
lower part of the operculum, only its hinder end is sometimes seen projecting out-
side the operculum into the opercular membrane; the latter besides encloses the
two long and slender branchioslegal rays (r). Interoperculum (io) thin, fairly high,
pointed at botli ends, the front end joined by the ligament (li) to the angular, the
hind end by the ligament (li') to the hyoid (to the process of the latter below which
the branchiostegal rays are attached).

The infraorbitals are represented by the two large bones ao and ao' (PI. V,
figs. 4, 5), which however do not contain any lateral-line canal. The posterior (ao) is
situated in the normal position for the antorbital (or preorbital); it is bound by
strong connective tissue to the prefrontal, and in front of this spot it is emar-
ginated for the nasal opening; inside the connection with the prefrontal the
upper margin is firmly joined to the upper branch of the symplectic; the lower
margin is suturally connected with the preoperculum, the front margin with the
anterior preorbital (ao'). The latter is more elongated, its upper margin joined to
the upper branch of the symplectic and to the entopterygoid, the lower margin
to the outside of the quadrate; the front margin is free. The convex outer face
of both antorbitals is sculptured; between their inner concave face and the outer
face of the true suspensory bones is the Muse, adductor mandihulæ, the tendons of
which appear below the margin of the foremost preorbital, branching to the
mouth parts.

It is a curious fact that some of the previous authors did not recognise these
bones as infraorbitals in spite of their position outside the muscles, covering these.
That some authors have regarded the anterior infraorbital as the metapterygoid
might be excused by the circumstance that its upper margin is suturally connected
both to the entopterygoid and to the symplectic and thus to a certain degree plays
the part of a metapterygoid; but in some other Syngnathids (e. g. Nerophis) it does
not enter between the suspensorial bones, and besides its relation to the muscu-
lature ought to have prevented the mistake. That the posterior bone must be
homologous to the preorbital, I think nobody will question; but in teleosts gener-
ally no bones are found in front of the preorbital; nevertheless they may occur in
some fishes, as I have shown to be the case in Amphisile, where 1 — 4 small bones
appear in this position. That no canal for the lateral line is present in the infra-

35 301

Orbitals of Siphonostoma, and other Syngnatliids is in accord with the fact that all
the other hones of the skull as well as the dermal plates of the body are devoid of
canals; and besides, if infraorbitals are found in other members of the group "So-
lenichthges" (which is the case with Amphisile, Centriscus, Aulostoma) they also lack
canals.

hi Siphonosloma, and the Syngnathids generally, the connection between the
cranial beak and the suspensory bones appears to be somewhat looser or weaker
than in the preceding genera.

The hyoid (PI. VI, figs. 1, 4, 5) is short, reaching only about to the front end
of the first gill arch; it is composed of but 4 pieces, no division between an epi-
hyal and a ceratoliyal being visible. If we compare this form with Aulostoma and
Fistnlaria it seems possible that the ceratohyal has vanished , or has been fused
with the large lower hypohyal (by'); but I have not been able to lind any trace
of a suture, neither in the hypohyal nor in the epihyal, which might indicate two
constituents. The lower hypohyal is very large as in the other members of the
"So/eHic/i//i£/es", and also here a considerable part of it covers the inside (fig. 4) of
the epihyal (eh), whereas the latter overlaps on the outer side (fig. 5). The upper
hypohyal (by") is very small, roundish; the stylohyal (st) short and stout, with the
articular head facing outwards, and carrying on the inner side, below the articular
head, a strong process, which is connected by ligament with the syniplectic. The
epihyal on its outer side has a strong, triangular process, and below this are fixed
the two long and slender branchiostegals (r), the upper of which is the stouter;
both follow the opercular margins to the small gill-slit close to the nape (PI. V,
fig. 5 r).

The glossohyal (PI. VI, figs. 1, 10 gl) is long and slender; the foremost longer
part is cartilaginous; the proximal osseous part hardly projects over the anterior
end of the hyoid; behind it is closed, without cartilage (sometimes a small separate
nodule of cartilage is found between it and the first basibranchial). The urohyal
is fairly long, reaching backwards past the level of the articulation of the hyoid;
in front it is broad, head-shaped, the remaining part laterally compressed. Only
two ossified basibranchials (copulæ) are present; the first (coj) follows immediately
behind the glossohyal; its anterior end is without cartilage, the cartilaginous post-
erior end joins the cartilaginous front end of the second basibranchial (con); the
posterior end of the latter reaches the hypobranchials (hy) of the second gill-
arch. Sometimes an indication of a third basibranchial is found midway between
the second and third arches in the shape of a weak lenticular nodule of car-
tilage.

As in Aulostoma and Fistularia the parts of the branchial arches belonging to
the roof of the pharynx are reduced. The first gill-arch has only two parts, the ce-
ratobranchial (ci) and the epibranchial (ej); the latter is rudimentary and widely
separated from the first. The lower end of the ceratobranchial is completely

39*

302 36

ossified, while in all the following it is cartilaginous. The epibranchial is some-
times incompletely ossified. The second gill-arch is composed of the typical 4
elements, the hypobranchial (hvn) joins its fellow at the posterior end of the se-
cond basibranchial; its cartilaginous hind end passes without any articulation di-
rectly into the cartilaginous part of the ceratohyal (cn); the latter is widely separated
from the epihyal (en) which joins the considerably longer pharyngobranchial (phn).
The third gill-arch is devoid of hypobranchial, its epibranchial separated from the ce-
ratohyal but articulated to the pharyngobranchial; the latter (phm) is joined to the
upper and inner side of the preceding pharyngobranchial. The fourth and fiflth
arches have only the ceratobranchial. Thus the branchial apparatus is still more
reduced than in Aulostoma and Fistularia, not only the second and third epibran-
chials but also the first being separated from their ceralohyals; the fourth pha-
ryngobranchial is lost, as well as the liypobranchials of the first and third arches;
but two basibranchials are present; no trace of teeth. As the interspaces between
the arches in the ventral median line are rather large, the whole gill-bearing appa-
ratus appears elongated and reaches farther back than is usual in fishes; ac-
cordingly the operculum is also elongated. The five gill-clefts on each side are
surrounded by gill-rakers, which are pointed and fairlj' long and contain an ossi-
fication (sometimes divided into two, the point being separately ossified); the gill-
rakers are never directly joined to the skeleton, but enclosed in the skin, the post-
erior or inner row being farthest awaj' from the skeleton; they do not go beyond
the boundaries of the ceratobranchials.

The pectoral arch. This part seems to have been thoroughly examined by
only two or three authors, Parker (in his great work on the Shoulder-girdle (40)
1868), Smitt (54), and lately Goodrich (15). None of these authors have made out
the facts correctly; consequently their interpretation cannot be correct.

It is well known that the dermal armature in all Syngnathidœ is composed
of large bony scutes, arranged regularly in series and forming rings round the
body. In Siphonostoma typhle each ring of the trunk anterior to the dorsal fin and
the anal opening is composed of 7 plates (PI. Ill fig. 2), 3 pairs — namely the sup-
erior (si), median (ml) and inferior (il) lateral plates — , and one unpaired, the
ventral plate. The interspaces between the large plates are filled out by small
and thin ones forming one median series along the back, two along each lateral
aspect (i) and one along each side of the belly. This arrangement is found imme-
diately behind the pectoral fin. Anterior to the pectoral the arrangement is some-
what different. Here the clavicle (cl) forms part of the exoskeleton; the superior
lateral plate is wanting, likewise the ventral plate; but in the closely related
Syngnalhiis the ventral is present. In the dorsal median line is found an unpaired,
rather thick and solid longitudinal plate (n), and anterior to this, behind the skull, a
similar one, but smaller (n'). These two "nuchal" plates I regard as belonging to
the endoskeleton, being in my opinion interspinous bones. Finally a plate is found,
which seems to correspond to the true or median lateral plate of the following

37 303

rings; as it covers part of the muscles of the pectoral fin I propose to call it the
"cover-plate" (c). The inferior lateral plate has the greater part on the ventral side,
where it forms a large junction with its fellow from the other side; it may be
termed the "jugular plate" (j).

In a slit between the clavicle and Ihe "cover-plate" in front, and the lateral
and inferior lateral of the first ring behind, the basais or pterygials of the pectoral
fin are immovably fixed '".

Closer inspection shows that the clavicular arch only contains the post-
temporal and the clavicle; the supraclavicle and the postclavicle are wanting. The
posllemporal is already mentioned under the skull. The clavicle (PI. Ill, figs. 1, 2, 6,
7 cl) has somewhat the form of a T; the anterior end of the horizontal branch is
connected through ligament to the posltemporal; besides this branch is immovably
fixed to the transverse processes of the 2 foremost vertebræ. The outer face of
the anterior part of the horizontal branch is smooth and excavated, forming the
interior wall of the tube leading to the gills; the hind part of the branch and the
uncovered part of the stem are sculptured in the same way as the dermal plates.
The lower end of the stem or vertical part is bifurcated, the outer branch (o) being
connected with the lateral part of the jugular plate, the inner (i) with the horizontal
part of the same. Through the passage thus produced a ventral portion of the lateral
muscles goes to the urohyal.

The scapular skeleton is extremely weak; the cartilaginous part, preserved
to a small extent in all bony fishes, here forms the greater part of the whole; in
fact the ossifications appear so small in proportion to the cartilage, that the latter
has been mistaken by the previous authors for the whole scapular skeleton.

The very small scapula (sc) has hitherto been quite overlooked; the cora-
coid (co) being much greater has not escaped attention but has been interpreted
as an "interclavicle". Parker wrongly supposed that it was composed of two
pieces, and hence he described 2 "intercla vieles"; Smitt observing better onlj' cor-
rected to one "interclavicle". Goodrich figures only a "coraco-scapular cartilage";
the ossified coracoid is not represented in his figure, and the small scapular ossi-
fication is given as the first of his "5 radiais" (i. e. pterygials).

The scapular foramen, present in other Teleosteans, here forms part of the
large opening between the clavicle and the scapular arch; just in front of the sca-
pular ossification pass the same nerves and blood-vessels which otherwise go through
the foramen scapulare.

The 4 basais or pterygials (ba) are of peculiar shape. Their middle part
is a narrow stalk, basally and distally they are laterally compressed and broad;
so far their form might easily be derived from that found in Fistiilaria and Aulo-
stonia. But in the Lophobranch the distal part is on both sides provided with 2 or
3 thin processes, which at their end are flattened out into more or less irregular
plates. The latter lean against the dermal skeleton; those of the inner face are

304 38

immovably joined to the lateral and inferior lateral plate, those of the outer face
to the dermal part of the clavicle and to the "cover-plate". In this way the
structural arrangement before-mentioned is brought about; the whole part, on
which the pectoral rays play, is solidly fastened between the lips of the slit in
the armature. Through the narrow apertures left between the component skeletal
parts the tendons pass from the pectoral muscles to the base of the fin-rays, thus
arranged between and conducted by a system of "coulisses". In this way the whole
scapular system is strengthened by the dermal armature, and the extremely thin
and fragile, mostly cartilaginous, apparatus is rendered capable of forming the base
for such powerful muscles as are really found here.

The peculiar structure of the pterygials and the mechanical part it plays,
has hitherto escaped attention; only Parker has observed the bony processes,
which he compares with stag's-horns without understanding their functions.

The cleft base of the fin-rays embraces a small nodule of cartilage, which
forms the joint with the cartilaginous mass resulting from the fusion of the distal
ends of all the pterygials.

The (14) pectoral rays are as usual composed of two lateral halves, but un-
jointed and unbranched.

Osteology of other members of the Syngnathidæ.

In the other Syngnathids which I have examined the main features of the
vertebral column are the same as in Siphonostoma typhle: i. a. the vertebrae sup-
porting the dorsal fin are always provided with a secondary transverse process in
the shape of a wing behind the primary one, whether they belong to the abdominal
or the caudal portion. Syngnathus acus and röstellatus show hardly any pecularities
worth mentioning.

In Nerophis the three anterior vertebræ are still immovably joined together,
but the third is more loosely attached to the second than in the genera Siphono-
stoma, Syngnathus and Hippocampus. In Nerophis œquoreus the greater part of the
dorsal fin Is situated on the abdominal vertebræ. In two specimens (Ç) 12 resp. 11
vertebræ are modified to this end, 8 belonging to the abdominal, 4 or 3 to the
caudal series; the groups of interspinous bones are the following:

A: 6, 4, 4, 3, 4, 3, 3, 3 ] 4, 3, 3, 6 *
B: 4, 4, 4, 3, 4, 3, 4, 3 | 4, 4, 3.

All the abdominal vertebræ are long, with stout transverse processes, distally
expanded and more directed downwards than in Siphonostoma, probably corre-
sponding to the more compressed shape of the body; besides, these processes are
somewhat nearer to the front end than in S. The first caudal has a well-developed
inferior (hæmal) arch; the last vertebra carries a single vertical plate, probably
* The three hindmost of the last group are densely crowded together.

39 305

representing two fused hypurals and the urostyle, and embraced by 7 fin-rays; the
latter are all really ventral to the end of the chorda. The dorsal iiiterspinous bones
are relatively longer, the spinous processes lower than in Siphonostoma ; they pos-
sess similar but more regular expansions (cfr. Pi. IV, fig. 12). Anal fin and anal inter-
neurals are wanting.

Nerophis ophidian has similar vertebrae to the preceding species; only the
last caudal vertebra is without any plate, the caudal fin being absent. The
dorsal fin is for the greater part situated on the tail. A specimen (Ç) with 34
dorsal rays has its dorsal fin supported by 11 vertebrae, 3 abdominal and 8 caudal;
the grouping of the interneurals is the following:

3, 3, 4 3, 3, 3, 2, 3, 3, 4, 3.

The caudal vertebrae, except the last, are provided with haemal arches; the
last vertebra is rudimentary, without any processes save an indication of transverse
processes. The number of caudal vertebrae in this specimen is 74!

In Hippocampus the vertebrae are shorter and stouter than in the preceding,
elongated genera, but the general shape is the same. Also here the 3 anterior are
immovable and first and second firmly joined to the clavicle. In the two species
examined (//. brevirostris and longirostris) there are 11 abdominal vertebrae; the dor-
sal inlerspinous bones are connected with the two foremost caudal vertebrae (H. brevi-
rostris, PI. IV, fig. 2) or besides with the last abdominal [longirostris). The first caudal
vertebra has a hæmal arch but open below, sometimes joined to the next, which
also may be open below. The hæmal arches of the two anterior caudal vertebrae
are directly in connection with the inlerspinous bones for the anal fin (PI. IV,
fig. 2). The secondary transverse process is very long, only separated by a narrow
slit from the primary one on the vertebrae supporting the dorsal fin. The hæmal
arches are considerably stouter than in the elongated genera, and, as the vertebræ
are shorter, the protection of the large subcaudal blood-vessels is much the same
as in other fishes. The spinous processes are somewhat more strongly marked than
in the other genera. The last vertebra rudimentary.

In H. brevirostris (c?) the number of vertebræ is found to be: 37 = 11 + 26.

The 15 (//. brevirostris) or 16 (H. longirostris) dorsal inlerspinous bones are
bisegmented; the distal segment is a small cartilage; the proximal segment longer
than in the preceding genera; the lateral expansions for connection with the 3 upper
lateral plates of the armour are directed obliquely downwards. The row of inter-
neurals is rather densely crowded, but two fanshaped groups may easily be distin-
guished, one for each supporting vertebra (8 and 7 members). In each group the
lateral expansions are directed towards the middle, pointing backwards on the ant-
erior members and forwards on the posterior.

The anal fin in H. brevirostris has 3 bisegmented inlerspinous bones (not fused
together); the terminal segment is a small cartilage, the proximal is long, reaching

306 40

to the hæmal arches of the two foremost caudal vertebiæ; the fin-muscles originate
only from the first. The anterior interneural is somewhat stouter than the others
and with well-developed expansions for connection with the foremost pair of lower
lateral plates, which bound the anal space; on the following interneurals the ex-
pansions are only indicated.

H. Inngirostris seems only to possess two anal interneurals.

The number of fin rays in the dorsal fin is 17 — 18, in the anal 4; their struc-
ture is as in the preceding genera '**.

The other Syngnathids examined show essentially the same structure of the
skull as Siphonostoma. Syngnathus (aciis and rostellatus) only differs in minutiæ in
the outline or form of some of the bones. In Neropliis (ceqiioreiis and ophidion) (PI.
V, figs. 10, 9) the most conspicuous differences are the following. The entopterygoid
is longer and joins the upper branch of the symplectic. The posterior antorbital
(ao) is considerably more elongated, in N. œquoreus reaching past the suture between
the mesethmoid and vomer, while the anterior is much smaller and not in con-
tact with the cranial beak (very often it is almost rudimentary, not reaching behind
to the posterior preorbital); along the latter, therefore, the entopterygoid (ept) is
uncovered for a long way; the front margin of ao' almost reaches the suture between
the quadrate and the ectoplerygoid. The bones of the skull, the suspensorial parts
are stouter, the maxilla broader and stouter etc. than in Siphonostoma. In Nerophis
ophidion the snout is short and stout, the mesethmoid and vomer therefore parti-
cularly powerful. In both species these two bones are about of equal length. The
nuchal tendons, fastened to the epiotics, are ossified in Ner. ophidion (fig. 9 t), as in
Aiilostoma, Fistularia and Solenostomus, but unossified in N. œquoreus.

In Hippocampus (PI. V, fig. 6) the differences seem more obvious; they are
partly due to the large spines on the frontals, the smaller ones on the mesethmoid
and supraoccipital, but besides, the braincase proper is relatively larger in pro-
portion to the snout, the latter being not only shorter but also broader than in
the preceding genera. The nuchal face is oblique in the opposite direction, from
below upwards and backwards; the supraoccipital and its crest is much larger,
forcing the epiotics (ep) down on the sides of the skull and giving attachment to
the tendons (at *), which in the other genera are fastened to the epiotics. The
posttemporal (pt) sends out from its lower margin a process (p) to the lateral wing
of the exoccipital. The hyomandibular (fig. 7 Ii}') is much longer, and somewhat
more sloping forwards, the ascending part of the preoperculum (pro), therefore,
longer. As in Sipljonostoma the entopterygoid does not reach the symplectic. The
operculum is higher than long, the suboperculum extremelj' reduced, never visible
from without (and very easily overlooked); the interoperculum short but high.
There are three antorbitals (ao, ao', ao"). The same is found in the other
genera of the Hippocampine group, e. g. Solenognathus (hardwickii), Gasterotokeus
and Phyllopteryx ifoliatus). The posterior antorbital (ao) is small, especially in
Phyllopteryx (PI. V, fig. 8) ; in the latter the elongated middle antorbital (ao') is

307

provided with a hooked spine, pointing backwards. Also here the nuchal tendons
appear to be fixed to the supraoccipital; the braincase is upon the whole similar
to that of Hippocampus, but the snout is long and slender, and more than half its
length is due to the niesethmoid.

In Syngnatlms the branchial apparatus is like that of Siphonostoma, but
in the other genera it differs considerably. In Nerophis (œqiiorens and ophidion) the
hyoid has only three pieces, the upper hypohyal, which in Siphonostoma is very
small, being lost; there is only one branchiostegal, which bifurcates distally and is
fixed to the inner side of the epihyal. The glossohyal is short but with long
anterior cartilage, the urohyal long and stout. The gill-bearing part is still more
elongated (PI. VI, fig. 12); there are the same two basibranchials, but the first arch
is provided with a hypobranchial, while all the following are devoid of hypo-
branchials; every trace of epibranchials is wanting, and the pharyngobranchials
are reduced to one on each side, probably representing that of the second arch. *
The gill-rakers are similar to those in Siphonostoma.

In Hippocampus (PI. VI, fig. 11) {brevirostris and longirostris) the glossohyal (gl)
is very short, the urohyal short and stout; the hyoid and the branchiostegals as
in Siphonostoma. Basibranchials are totally absent. The first gill-arch possesses a
hypobranchial and an epibranchial ; the hypobranchial is longer than the cerato-
branchial, and provided with flat lateral expansions; it is almost parallel to its
fellow from the opposite side, or only feebly converging in front. The second arch
is complete, having a pharyngobranchial, in the third only the hypobranchial is
wanting. Thus, except the first arch, the gill-arches agree with those of Siphono-
stoma. The gill-rakers are somewhat longer than in the latter, but their ossified
axis is confined to the basal part only.

The following tabular view of the genera examined will show the main
features of the branchial apparatus:

Siphonostoma and Sgngnathus.

Gill arch ,

(Copula)
Basibr.

Hypobr.

Ceratob.

Epib.

Pharb.

Gill-rakers
1st row

Gill-rakers
2nd row

-I_

III

(+)

-f

■ Sometimes it may on the one side be divided in the middle by an articulation (representing 2d
and 3d pharyngobranchial?); upon the whole it is often somewhat differently shaped on the two sides.

I). K. 1). VidensU Selsk. Skr., 7. Rickke, nalurvidensk. og mathem. Afd. VIII. .■;. 40

308

Nerophis.

Gill arch

(Copula)
Basibr.

Hypobr.

Ceratob.

Epib.

Pharb.

Gill-rakers
1st row

Gill-rakers
2nd row

-1-

III

(+)

Hippocampus.

Gill arch

(Copula)
Basibr.

Hypobr.

Ceratobr.

Epib.

Pharb.

Gill-rakers
1st row

Gill-rakers
2nd row

III

_1_
1

-f-

+ '"

Pectoral skeleton. Nerophis has no pectoral fins in the adult state; only
the larvæ possess well-developed pectorals, but without rays. In Nerophis the
"pectoral ring" is composed mainly as in Siphonostoma, the only difference being
that the second nuchal plate is joined to the clavicle, and the "cover-plate" is ab-
sent. As there is no slit in the armature for the missing pectoral fin the lateral
plate of the following ring joins firmly on to the clavicle.

The clavicle is of the same type as in Siphonostoma, but every trace of the
scapular arch has vanished together with the fin-muscles.

In Hippocampus (and its allies) the clavicular and scapular arches and the
pterygials are in the main as in Siphonostoma"". The pectoral ring does not
materially differ from that of Siphonostoma. Comparing the figure (PI. Ill, fig. 3)
with the other one (fig. 2), the same constituents will easily be found. In Hippo-
campus there are 3 nuchal plates, the posterior is generally not to be found in the
Syngnathine group. The anterior fig. 3 n' is of very peculiar shape, joining the
skull and apparently forming the top of the bent head, often described as the
"corona". This part is wanting in some members of the Hippocampine group
(Gasterotokeus, Phyllopteryx) but present in Solenognatlius'K In Phylloptergx the
hindmost nuchal is provided with a long bony style, like the top of the supra-
occipital, and several (paired) styles from the dermal armour supporting the curious
dermals flaps characteristic of the genus.

43 309

Visceral anatomy.

All Syngnathidæ possess 4 complete gills and a well-developed pseudobranchia,
consisting of 3 — 4 lamellæ (4 in Siphonostomn, 3 in Nerophis and Hippocampus) of
the same structure as those of the branchial arches. The upper gill lamellæ of
each row take their origin from the pharyngeal wall, as in Fistularia and Aulostoma.
On each side are 5 gill-slits, which do not reach farther dorsally than the cerato-
branchial part of the arch; the anterior slit, between the hyoid and the first gill-
arch, is much smaller than the following 4. The gill-rakers have already been
mentioned, as also the fact that the structure of the gill-lamellæ does not materially
differ from that of other teleoslean fishes. For further information about the
latter point I may refer to Duméril (12 a, p. 148 and b, p. 480), where the older
literature is cited, and to Ryder (48, p. 193) and Huot (19, p. 220).

The anatomy of the internal organs has been worked out and more or less
completely described by several authors, among whom, besides those quoted by
Duméril, I might mention Retzius, Kröyer, Lilljeborg and Huot. Here I need
only point out, for comparison with the other genera under consideration, that the
intestinal canal is simple,* (straight or nearly so in the elongated forms, coiled in
Hippocampus), apparently without distinct stomach, the boundary between the
stomach and intestine being only marked off by the entrance of the bile-duct,
without pyloric appendages and without mesentery (or only with rudiments of the
latter, as in Hippocampus, cfr. Moreau (36, p. 30)). The liver is not lobed, provided
with a gall-bladder lying in an incision of its right side. The aorta follows the
left side of the vertebral column. The air-bladder is present and provided at its
anterior end with a "red gland". A urinary bladder is developed. The kidneys
show peculiarities hardly found in any other Teleosteans. Such are the complete
absence of Malpighian corpuscles (a feature only occurring also in the related
genus Solenostomus), the situation of the whole kidney-substance, carrying urinary
tubules and both urinary ducts, on one side of the body cavity, the right, following
the strongly developed right cardinal vein (the left appears to be absent). Further
ought to be noted the fact, that the pronephros or at any rate the large pronephric
corpuscle and glomus and the coiled-up anterior part of the pronephric duct, struc-
tures so evident in other teleostean larvæ, here appear to be completely absent in
the newly hatched larvæ (from the marsupium) and never to be developed later.
Also the simple structure of the genital gland in the male, the testis being tubi-
form with central canal (cfr. Jungersen 23 a, p. 119, German translation p. 203), is
a feature which among many others shows that the Syngnathids have deviated
strongly from a normal type and have been highly specialized"--*.

' A fact already known in 1673 to my countryman Ole Borch (Olaus Borrichils) for Syngna-
thus (3 p. 159).

40*

810 44

Solenostomidæ.

Solenostoiims.

The genus Solenostomus, founded in 1803 by Lacépède (31, p. 102),* has been
grouped with the Syngnathidce since the days of Cuvier (9 a, p. 157), in modern
times always as representing a distinct family. The species of the genus seem al-
ways to have been rare in collections, a fact which explains that their anatomical
structure has never been thoroughly worked out. The only anatomical accounts
known to me are those given by Pallas (39, p. 35) and by Günther (16b, p. 151);
both are very incomplete and contain some errors. Most authors have confined
themselves to renewed descriptions of the oldest known species, or besides to the
establishing on quite external characters of a few (3) new ones. The material which
I have had the opportunity to examine only contains two species: Sol. cyanopteriis
Blk. and Sol. paradoxus (Pall.), . and I greatly doubt the existence of more than
these two species. Of both I have had at my disposal male and female specimens,
all from Japan. For this most valuable material I am greatly indebted to Dr.
Shigeho Tanaka and Mr. Alan Owston.

The geographical distribution is very wide, and the two species seem to occur
at the same localities; in fact both S. paradoxus and cyanopterus have been taken
together at Boshu, Japan (Jordan 1901), and specimens of both species are present
in my collection from Japan from localities which are not far from each other;
according to Duméril both are found at Mauritius (Isle de France). ** The geographical
range embraces the Indian Ocean and the western part of the Pacific, from Zanzi-
bar to New Guinea and to the eastern coasts of Japan. Inside this wide area the
localities where specimens actually have been found are rather few and scattered;
no captures at the coasts of the continents or the great islands have hitherto been
mentioned (or at all events distinctly stated). All the localities known to me from
the literature and from Museum-specimens, which I have had the opportunity to
see, are the following: Zanzibar {S. cyanopterus); Mauritius (S. cyanopterus (= bleekeri),
S. paradoxus); Maldives {S. paradoxus); Amboyna {S. paradoxus {and ''brachyurus"));
Ceram,Wahai *** {S. cyanopterus); New Guinea (S. cyanopterus); "China" (S. cyanopterus);

' The name Solenostomus (1815 altered bj' Rafinesque to Solenostoma) was originally used by
Klein 1744 for some true Syngnathidœ, later, 1761, by Seba for a species of the present genus, de-
scribed in Thesaurus, Vol. 3, p. 1Ü6 and figured ibid. PI. 34, fig. 4. This species is generallj' interpreted
as identical with Sol. paradoxus (Fistularia paradoxa] of Pallas, which also in ray opinion is correct
(cfr. for example the shape of the caudal peduncle).

■* if S. bleekeri is = cyanopterus.

"' This locality, given by Bleeker (2 p. 308) in the following words: "Habit. Wahai, Ceram sep-
tentrionalis, in mari", has led to the erroneous conclusion that Solen, cyanopterus also occurred at
Hawaii, in the Pacific! We meet the misunderstanding for the first time in Kaup (25 p. 21, who saj-s:
"Dr. Bleeker obtained his specimens in the sea of Hawaii and Ceram"; later we find it in Johdan and
Snyder (22, p. 4) and in Jordan and Evermann (21 b, p. 118); the latter saj: "The onh' Hawaiian reference
is that given by Bleeker. It is doubtful if the species really occurs in these islands"; and in the
Synonymy they quote "Bleeker 1854, Natuurk. Tijdschr. Nederl. Indie, VI, p. 507, Hawaii and Ceram".

45 311

Boshu (Awa), Japan (S. cganopterus, S. paradoxus); Jogashima, Japan (S. cganopierus);
Yenoura, Japan (S. paradoxus); Yodomi, Japan {S. paradoxus {"leptosoma")). All
the Japanese localities are from the eastern coast of Hondo near the entrance to
the Bay of Tokyo. Regarding their habits nothing definite is known; they most
likely occur among sea-weeds, probably in shallow water; in fact two specimens of
S. cganopterus Jogashima kindly sent by Dr. Tanaka were taken "among sargassum".
The time of breeding is unknown; I may only mention that a female S. paradoxus
in my possession taken at Yenoura, Suruga Gulf, ' i:; 1903, carried eggs with em-
bryos and hatched embryos in the pouch.

As all current descriptions contain some more or less grave errors I have
found it advisable to conclude my account of the anatomical structure with a
revised definition of the genus and of the two species examined.

The following anatomical description has mainly been based on specimens of
Sol. cganopterus; the few points in which Sol. paradoxus differs are so small and
insignificant that they can most conveniently be included in the definition of this
species as given below.

Before describing the structures found by dissection I wish to point out a
few features visible from without which seem not to have been observed hitherto
or at least not to have been noted in the descriptions or figures known to me.

Such are the peculiar small cutaneous prolongations or "villi" scattered over
a great part or most of the skin, also on that of the fins. In some specimens they
are all quite small and difficult to see, in others some of them are at certain places
rather prominent and easily seen, showing a tendency to symmetrical arrangement.
The smallest ones are simple, low elevations, or like bluntly conical warts; the
more developed are not only larger but may be more or less branched. In male
specimens of S. cganopterus they are specially large and frequently branched behind
the anus, at the posterior margins and on the ventral sides of the "hump" carrying
the anal and second dorsal fins; in some specimens in the British Museum very
visible papillæ form a ring round (on) the eyeball, and these papillæ seem always
to be present, but often difficult to see. They occur in both sexes and in both
species examined,* but seem to be very variable as to their number and develop-
ment (seasonal? perhaps more strongly developed at breeding time 7)^''. At the
mandibular symphysis S. cganopterus has a well developed barbel; in spite of its
size it has hitherto been overlooked, most likely because it is concealed between
the mandibular rami. In S. paradoxus it seems less developed.

In addition to the well-known sexual difference shown by the ventral fins,

DuMÉRiL gives tlie name correctly (12 b, p. 498): "Les 3 indiv. décrits par M. BleeUer . . . ont été pris
dans la mer, à l'île Wahai et au nord de l'île Ceram ". Waliai is (according to Andree's and Stieler's
maps) a town on the north coast of Ceram.

* In 2 specimens of S. paradoxus in the Brit. Museum (a from Amboyna, Dr. Bleeker's collection,
b from the Maldives, coll. S.Gardiner) I found them strongly developed; less visible on most of the
specimens of S. cganopterus, but always distinguishable, mostly so on spec, g (from China, coll. by Sir
E. Belcher).

312

another is to be found in the nasal organ. The triangulai* fossa just anterior to
the eye, where the nasal openings ought to be, shows in the male its hind part
beset with thin cutaneous lameliæ radiating from beneath a flap hanging down
from the upper margin of the fossa (PI. VII, fig. 0). The lameilæ are thin, low al
their upper end, enlarged below into projecting flaps; they are richly provided
with blood-vessels; in each a small vessel follows the margin and breaks up into
a network in the interior. In the female llie skin of the fossa is smooth and even.
Any real nasal openings I have not been able to detect.

In the male of Sol. cyanopterus the height of the snout at the middle of its
length is greater than in the female, and the whole profile of the anterior part of
the head is different (cfr. fig. 6, PI. VII). The proportions of the height of the
snout to its length (from the front margin of the eye to the end) are in the male
about as 1 to 3, in the female ca. 1 to 4. In Sol. paradoxus there seems not to be
any marked sexual difference in the form of the snout ; but the material of this
species at my disposal is too scanty and besides not well enough preserved for
settling this point with certainty.

No lateral line canals are to be found, neither on the head nor on the body.

The following measurements have been made on 5 specimens of S. cyanopterus
and 2 of S. paradoxus. Of S. cyanopterus specimens A and C are from Zanzibar,
kindly lent me from the R. Museum at Berlin, the others, S. paradoxus included, are
from Japan (S. cyanopterus B and D from Jogashima, E from Boshu, Sagami Sea;
S. paradoxus B from Yenoura, Suruga Gulf).

Mm.

Solenostomus

cyanopterus

S. paradoxus

(SB

From snout to end of caudal fin

105

109

125

„ „ „ eud of tail

65
29

71
30

81
33

65
27

95
38

46
19

„ „ „ nape

„ „ „ front margin of eye

Height of snout at its middle

5,5

7-8

3(2,8)

From foremost caudal fin-ray to end of caudal fin .

Length of ventral fin

20
17

22
17

18
15

31
20

10
11—12

Heiglit of first dorsal fin

Greatest height of thorax, between Di and V

13,5

16,5

Height of narrowest part of body

6 (5,8)

„ between D: and A

6—7

Length of tail, from anus

„ of vertebral column

40—41

From gill-slit to anal opening

16-17

Exoskeleton.

The dermal skeleton (PI. VII, fig. 6) is composed of large ossifications arranged
in transverse and longitudinal series, leaving large interspaces of naked skin. The
shape and arrangement as well as the number of these ossifications are almost the

47 313

same in both species. Only on the high part of the body, anterior to the first
dorsal and the ventrals, do unpaired ossifications occur, a row of 5 scutes forming
an uninterrupted lieel along the median dorsal line, while another, but interrupted,
series, composed of 4 (exceptionally 5 or 3) median scutes, is found along the ven-
tral margin. The members of the dorsal row are more or less cruciform, their
longitudinal stems suturally united together, their transverse branches — except
that of the first — united to the uppermost members of each of the paired trans-
verse series. The scutes composing the latter are star-like, their branches mostly
joined together, thus forming a kind of meshwork; the ventral members meet
their fellows from the other side or are firmly united to the median unpaired ven-
tral scutes. In this way the whole forepart, anterior to the fins, is apparently
made immovable, forming a kind of "thorax". Of the transverse rows on each
side of the "thorax", 3 behind the pectoral are most regular; in front of the pect-
oral the clavicle (cl) enters between the dermal ossicles, and the arrangement ap-
pears less regular. The hindmost of the 3 regular series consists of 6 members,
the ventral of which is joined to the posterior median scute (No. IV); the upper
4 are not connected with the next row in front. This row contains 4 scutes, the
ventral of which is joined to the median scutes II and III. All 4 members are
connected with the 4 forming the next transverse row; the ventral scute of this
row meets its fellow from the opposite side and moreover joins the unpaired scute
No. II; the second upper one is connected with a branch of the clavicle. The next
transverse row just in front of the pectoral also contains 4 dermal scutes; the ven-
tral joins its fellow from the opposite side; between the uppermost and the second
upper enters the clavicle, combining through a separate process with each. No
more complete transverse series are to be found, the shoulder girdle forming the
greater part of the skeleton at the anterior border of the body; only ventral der-
mal scutes are present corresponding to the ventral members of the transverse
rows. The foremost pair always meet in the ventral median line, while behind
them is interposed, between the next pair, the foremost unpaired scute I. Compar-
ing several individuals some minor irregularities may be found in this region,
while the more complete transverse series always seem to be identical as to
arrangement and number.

Behind the thorax, on the slender part of the body and on the tail, an ar-
rangement of the dermal scutes in vertical transverse rows is more or less pro-
nounced, but in accordance with the greater mobility of this part the connections
between the component members are partly dissolved, and no unpaired median
scutes are found nor any junction between the scutes of the opposite sides at the
margins of the bodj'. Apart from the higher, hump-like, part carrying the second
dorsal and the anal each transverse row is composed of 2 or 3 members, rows of 3
alternating — but not quit eregularly — with rows of 2. In some of the 3-membered
rows the members may be more firmly connected, in others only loosely or not at
all, and the rows do not always correspond on both sides; that is to say, the same
row which on the right side consists of 3 members may on the left only possess

314

two, and vice versa. At the end of the tail the rows are often incomplete, lacking
upper or lower members. On the "hump" 3 large, anchor-shaped, marginal scutes
are developed, reaching from the base of the second dorsal and the anal to the
nearest members of the ordinary rows, being joined to these or interposed between
them ; thus, on this part of the tail, transverse rows of 5 or 4 members are found,
and probably a certain amount of stiffness is acquired in this way. Sometimes
only the dorsal set is firmly connected with the neighbouring upper scute, while the
ventral set is interposed between the corresponding lower ones, sometimes the
reverse is the case, and in some specimens both sets are firmly connected, hi
one (female) specimen of S. paradoxus 4 anal marginal scutes occur instead of 3.

Setting aside the marginal scutes of the "hump" the other scutes might as well
be described as longitudinally arranged in 3 lateral rows*, an upper, a median, com-
posed of fewer but larger members, and a lower. The number of scutes in the upper
and lower longitudinal rows generally differ slightly, the one having one or two more
than the other, and generally the number is not quite the same on both sides; the
latter is also the case with the median row (comp, the table below, where the numbers
are given). The shape of the scutes is more or less that of a star, with 4 or 3 branches.
All the dermal scutes are provided with keels, most prominent in S. paradoxus, here
producing a spiny aspect especially on the slender part of the body and on the tail.

The total number of transverse rows behind the pectorals, which naturally is
the same as that of plates in the upper and lower longitudinal rows of body and tail, is
for S. cijanopterus 28—30, for S. paradoxus 29 — 33 (for details comp, the table below).

Number of dermal scutes.

S. cyanopterus

A d

B d

C 9

D Ç

E 9

S. paradoxus

A d

B 9

Narrow part of trunk + tail

Median
lateral row

left side | right side

13
13
12
13
15

•20 '

13
14
13
11
15

13
21

— to — lateral rows
lower

left side right side

26
26
26
24
25
24
26
25
24
24

28
25
28
28

26
26
26
25
25
24
25
25
25
24

26
28
29
28

Total number of

transverse rows,

including the 4 on

"thorax"

left side right side

30
30 (28)
29 (28)

32 (29)
32

30 (29)

29 (28)

30 (32)
33 (32)

* GÜNTHER (16 b, p. 151) only counts 2 rows; probablj' a misprint or a lapsus calami, since pre-
viously (42, p. 137) he gave the number correctly as 3.

49 315

Endoskeleton.

The vertebral column (PI. VII, fig, 3) is composed of 33 vertebræ, 19 ab-
dominal and 14 caudal. Ribs are wanting. The 3 anterior vertebræ are sutur-
ally united, the remaining only connected by means of the corpora, no articular
processes being developed.

The 5 anterior vertebræ are larger and stouter than the rest, especially the
2nd and 3rd are large; from the 6th the vertebræ decrease in size backwards, only
the last being again somewhat enlarged and together with the last but one
expanded into a large vertical plate supporting the rays of the caudal fin.

Strong anterior articular processes on the 1st vertebra overlap corresponding
processes on the exoccipitals, allowing the skull to be moved vertically. The ten-
dons for the muscles which raise the head are ossified (as in Fistularia, Aulosloma,
Nerophis ophidioii), forming on each side a large flat bone, in front fastened to tlie
epiotic, behind dissolving into numerous fine threads (PI. Ill, fig, 10 Id). Posteriorly
the 1st vertebra is immovably joined to the 2nd by means of strong denticulations,
and in the same way the second joins the third. Spinous processes are devel-
oped on all the vertebræ. Transverse processes are wanting on the anterior 4
and only indicated on the 5th; from the 6th on all the remaining abdominal
vertebræ show a well-developed transverse process, increasing in size backwards
and becoming more and more directed downwards; on the first caudal it joins
its fellow from the opposite side forming a strong laterally compressed inferior spine.
No "secondary" transverse processes occur on any of the vertebræ.

The superior and inferior spinous processes on the 9th or in another speci-
men the 10th caudal (the 28th or 29th vertebræ) are almost vertical, those on the
following inclined or bent forwards; this position is apparently due to the extreme
development of the parts supporting the caudal fin. On most of the vertebræ a
process occurs from the base of the neural arch behind the spinous process and
a similar one ventrally in the corresponding position (i. e.: on the abdominal ver-
tebræ behind the transverse process, on the caudal behind the inferior arch). On
the penultimate caudal vertebra these processes are fused with their fellows from
the opposite side, distally expanding into a large, laterally compressed plate. Pro-
bably the still larger plate surrounding the last vertebra is made up of corre-
sponding elements fused with the true upper and lower spines and the hypurals.
To elucidate the exact composition of this ray-supporting apparatus an examination
of sufficiently young specimens would be necessary. That the extraordinarily large
size of the caudal plate is caused by the great development of the fin is very evi-
dent and needs no further explanation.

If we compare the vertebral column with that of the Syngnathidæ the chief
points of resemblance seem to be the intinuite connection of the 3 anterior verte-
bræ and the absence of articulations between the neural arches of all the other
vertebræ; in general shape there are no obvious resemblances, neither with the
Syngnathidæ nor with Fistularia, Aulosloma or Centriscida:

I). K. n. Vidensk. Selsk. .Skr.. 7. Række, nnturvideiiNk. üg iiiatUeiii. At'd. \'II1, ."i. 41

316 50

As Ihc muscles lor the second dorsal (and the anal) do nol show any parti-
cular development and as corres|)ündingly no muscular processes on tlie vertehræ
supporting these uns are present either, we are justified in supposing that these fins
are not used for locomotion in llio way characteristic lor the Syngnathidæ-'.

The interspinous bones of the first dorsal fin are unisegniented, ö in
number. The first is broad and stout, its lower end bifurcated, in one specimen
skirting over the tip of the spinous process on the 6th vertebra; the anterior
branch forms a broad plate, the front margin of which seems firmly connected at
its lower extremity with the underside of the 5th median dermal scute; the post-
erior branch is narrow but fairly strong; together with it the following 3 inter-
spinous bones are enclosed in the space between the spinous processes of the 6th
and 7th vertebræ, closely packed together; the fifth interneural is a short broad
plate, firmly embraced by the bifurcated tip of the 8th vertebral spine. Thus the
supporting apparatus for the large rays of the first dorsal is in this way consider-
ably strengthened.

The interspinous bones of the second dorsal and the anal are bisegmented,
Ihe distal segment being only represented by a cartilaginous nodule, very much like
that of the Syngnathidæ.

The second dorsal fin is supported by 17 interspinous bones. Distally the Ist
is laterally compressed, flattened out into a plate supporting the anterior corner of
the dorsal "hump"; in a similar way the posterior corner of the hump is strength-
ened by an expansion formed by the fusion of the distal parts of the 2 or 3 hind-
most interneurals. The 3 anterior are enclosed in the space between the spinous
processes of the 1st and 2nd caudal vertebræ, the following 3 or 4 between the 2nd
and 3rd, next 3 or 4 between the 3rd and 4th, then 4 or 5 between the 4th and 5th,
and finally 2 or 3 behind the latter. There are no connections with the marginal
scutes of the dermal skeleton, consequently the bony expansions at the distal end
of these interneurals characteristic for the Syngnathidæ are not developed here.

Those of the anal fin are likewise 17 or 16, the anterior 2 distally fused to-
gether, and the same is the case with the posterior 3 or 2. The first is situated in
front of the inferior spine of the first caudal; the following interspace encloses 3,
the next 3 each have 4, and the last very short one lies behind the inferior spine of
the 5th caudal.

The 5 fin-rays of the first dorsal are strong and long, pointed, without any
longitudinal or transverse division; they are to be regarded as spinous rays.

The number of rays in the 2nd dorsal and the anal (in the specimens
examined by me) is 18 — 20 in Sol. cijanopterus, 21 — 22 in S. paradoxus (comp, the
tab. p. 322 [56]); that of the caudal fin always 16. The fin-rays of the 2nd dorsal
and of the anal are feeble, unbranched but ending in a bundle of extremely fine
threads; the distal part of most of them is transversely jointed, only some of the
anterior are without joints. The caudal rays are comparatively strong, the median

51 317

and longest less strong; all are simple, unbianched, evenly tapering and pointed;
viewed under a microscope Iheir distal part appears longitudinally divided, but the
two halves are tightly adpressed; no joints (or only a few and indistinct traces)
are to be seen"^^'.

The cranial skeleton, hi general appearance the head resembles that of
a Syngnathid. In proportion to the brain-case the snout part is extremely prolonged
and strongly compressed laterally. As in Syngnathids the quadrato-mandihular
articulation is situated almost below the front end of the vomer, thus the position
of the mandible when the mouth is closed is almost vertical (opposite to the case
in Fistularia, Aulostoma and Centriscus, but agreeing with Aniphisile, Siphonostoma
etc.). On the upper side of the skull ',> crests are observed, one median, shorter,
on the supraoccipital, and 2 lateral, longer, beginning at the hind margin of the
epiotics, running forwards on the frontals, rising in height over the orbits and
from here converging towards the mesethmoid, where they merge into one sharp
edge just above the anterior ends of the nasal fossæ. The crests are (or may be)
finely denticulated (especially in S. paradoxus).

The supraoccipital joins the trontals; parietals (and opislhotics) are
absent.

The epiotic is large; just below the posterior end of the crest mentioned above
an ossified tendon for the strong nuchal muscles is fastened (cfr. p. 815 [49]), and
below this bone the epiotic is connected with the upper fork of the posttemporal
(pt). The exoccipital carries a lateral process for connection with the articular
process of the first vertebra; both exoccipitals meet above the occipital foramen.
The articular face of the basioccipital is concave, oblique in position, sloping from
behind forwards and downwards. On the lower face of the skull the basioccipital
is laterally expanded (above the parasphenoid) and in front separated from the
prootic by a narrow cartilage (as in Siingiiatluis). The plerotic (sq) is large, reach-
ing the basioccipital below and thus intervening between the exoccipital and the
prootic Posteriorly the pterotic carries a crest, connected with the lower fork of
the posttemporal; in front it forms together with the prootic the posterior articular
face for the hyomandihular, while the anterior articular face belongs to the prootic
and poslfrontal.

The greater part of the cranial "beak" belongs to the mesethmoid. This
bone embraces most of the nasal fossa, forming the greater part of its roof and
floor and its whole median wall, while the rest of the fossa is bounded by the
frontal and prefrontal. Just in front of the nasal fossa the mesethmoid carries a
strong lateral spine, which may be more or less branched, and seems most strongly
developed in S. paradoxus.

The vomer (vo) is short in proportion to the mesethmoid, laterally compres-
sed towards its front end. As in Syngnathus a small rounded rostral cartilage is
[)resent. The posterior end of the vomer underlies only the foremost part of the
mesethmoid, reaching behind about to Ihe level of the oblique suture between the

41*

318 52

quadrate and Ihe synipleclic, ending lar in front of the parasphenoid. The anterior
end of the parasphenoid is found at a level with the middle of the nasal fossa.
Thus a large part of the lower face of the mesethmoid intervenes between the
vomer and parasphenoid forming alone the roof of the mouth-tube as in Fistularia
and Aiilostoma; this part of the mesethmoid is excavated below, with projecting
margins, to which the suspensory bones (entopterygoid and mainly the symplectic
(sy)) are fastened. The parasphenoid forms an obtuse angle below the posterior
margin of the orbit and reaches along the proolics and basioccipital almost to the
articular condyle of the latter. At the posterior orbital wall the parasphenoid
sends out an ascending process to meet the front pari of tlie prootic and the ali-
sphenoid. Between this process and its fellow from the opposite side the upper
face is somewhat hollowed for the attachment of the inferior musculi recti of the
eye. As far as 1 could make out no bridging over of this muscular fossa by the
prootics or alisphenoids is found, and consequently no "myodoma" is developed.
The alisphenoid is fairly large, forming part of the orbital wall between the frontal,
postfrontal, prootic and ascending process of the parasphenoid.

The intermaxilla (i) has a distinct but small ascending part connected with
the rostral cartilage; the maxilla (mx) is relatively large, as usual connected
with the vomer and rostral cartilage and with the maxillary process of the palatine.
The lower jaw (PI. VI, fig. 6) seems only to be composed of the articular (ar) and
the (edentulous) dental (d); a separate angular 1 have not been able to make out.

The hyomandibular (PI. VII, fig. 3 by) is short, comparatively slender; its outer
face joining the preoperculum is sculptured, its inner face anteriorly drawn out
into a slight ala; its lower end is cartilaginous and joins the hind end of the
horizontal symplectic (sy). The latter forms a long and high plate, the upper
margin of which joins the mesethmoid, the lower margin is thickened and con-
tains a cartilaginous axis; the bifurcation characteristic for the Syngnathids is ab-
sent here. Anteriorly it joins the quadrate in a long oblique suture, and its upper
anterior point overlaps suturally the posterior end of the entopterygoid (ept). As in
Syngnathids the metapterygoid is wanting. The entopterygoid is a narrow lamella,
joining the ectopterygoid (ect) anteriorly in a short suture. The latter is sabre-
shaped, joining the anterior thickened margin of the quadrate in a long suture,
and in a short suture connecting with the palatine (pa); this bone is short and
stout, giving otT as usual a short, diverging maxillary process. The quadrate (qu)
is long and high, its anterior margin almost vertical (thus in position intermediate
between that in Fistularia and Aulostoma on the one side and Syngnathids on the
other); the upper margin in front touches the entopterygoid, but apart from this
a narrow membranous strip intervenes between these bones as a feeble indication
of the large interspace found in Syngnathus; the outer face is very slightly convex
with a longitudinal (denticulated) crest running towards the articular head for the
mandible and continuing a similar crest along the preoperculum.

The ascending part of the preoperculum (pro) is short, slightly oblique, its

53 319

anterior margin embracing the origin of llie cheek-muscle; the long horizontal part
joins tlie quadrate in an oblicjue suture, a little past the middle of the snout; with
the lower part of the symplectic it connects through a rounded crest running on
the inner face along the upper margin. A reticulated sculpture adorns the outer
face of the preoperculum as well as that of the quadrate, entopterygoid and sym-
plectic; the more prominent crests are finely denticulated-''.

Three opercular bones are present as usual-'. The operculum (PI. VII,
fig. 60) is large, somewhat fan-shaped, the surface reticulated and carrying 3 crests
radiating from the upper muscular process, the uppermost one following the upper
margin. The suboperculum (s) is a long and extremely narrow bone, almost bristle-
like, posteriorly tapering; keeping at some distance from the operculum it curves round
the anterior, lower and posterior margins of the latter. It has hitherto apparently
been mistaken for one of the branchiostegals. The interoperculum is disconnected
from the suboperculum and situated on the inner face of the preoperculum, forming
a very thin lamella, as usual connected by ligament with the mandible.

Nasals and infraorbitals are completely wanting, and no lateral-line
canals are to be found in the preoperculum or in any other bones of the skull.

The hyoid (PI. VI, fig. 2, 3) is very unlike that of the true Lophobranchiates,
being here complete, composed of all the typical parts: 2 hypohyals (hy', hy"),
small on the outer aspect (fig. 2), a long ceralohyal (ch), a short epihyal (eh), and a
very short stylohyal (st); the latter carries on its outer face a long horizontal process
pointing forwards and lodged into a fossa on the inner side of the preoperculum.
On the inner face of the hyoid (tig. 3) both hypohyals — especially the lower —
are produced into long processes covering the anterior part of the ceratohyal.

The urohyal (PI. VII, fig. 3 u) is long and slender, posteriorly cleft into 2
long branches, the left again bifurcating. Only one branchiostegal (r) is present,
fixed along the outer face of the epihyal and ceratohyal. The single stem is soon
bent at an open angle and then divides into two slender branches, the lower of
which is much longer than the upper and following the equally slender suboper-
culum curves round the operculum about to the upper end of the gill-slit-'*.

The branchial skeleton (PI. VI, fig. 9) is reduced and rudimentary, even
more than is the case in the Syngnathicke. All unpaired elements — glossohyal
and basibranchials (copulæ) are wanting, and there arc no traces of gill-rakers.
On the other hand, teeth are present on the lower and upper pharyngeals. The
first gill-arch consists of two slender bones about of equal length, connected through
an undivided cartilage; they represent the hypobranchial and ceratobranchial. The
second arch consists of three or four parts: a rather long hypobranchial, connected
by undivided cartilage with the ceratobranchial, and a very small, rudimentary
epibranchial, carrying a single tooth; this part may be absent; in the specimen
figured it is developed only on the right side ; the fourth part, the pharyngo-
branchial, is widely separated from the rest, united to the pharyngeal belonging to
the third arch. Of tlie third arch the hypobranchial is wanting, as in the Si/ngna- ^-jp'

'à

■v. /

320

ihidœ; Ihe leniaiiiing lliree (or Iwo) paris l)eing the ccralobranchial, a rudimentary
epibranchial (the latter sometimes absent) with two teeth, and, widely separated
I'rom the rest, the pharyngobranchial. The lourth and fifth arches only consist of
the ceratobranchial, that of the tilth — the "lower pharyngeal" — expands into a
narrow plate carrying a number of pointed teeth.

The two „upper pharyngeals'- (PI. VI, fig. 7, 8) are joined end to end, and on
the ventral face each expands into a tooth-bearing lamella with its margin dorsally
enrolled; they are — as already stated — widely separated from the other parts
of the branchial skeleton, but the rows of gills are continued almost to their
posterior end, on the pharyngeal membrane. A comparison with the Syiujnathidœ
and with Fistiilaria and Aulostoma tends to show that these two pharyngobranchials
really belong to the second and third arches, as stated above.

In tabular form the main features of the branchial skeleton would be:

„.,, , Basibrancli- „ .
Gill-arcli jgj^ I Hypobr.

Ceratobr. Epibr.

Pharvngo-
br.

Gill
rakers

III

[+]
[+]

+
+

Compared with the other genera, Hippocampus (PI. VI, fig. 11) would be the
one, which in construction of the gill-apparatus is the nearest to Solenostomtis.

The shoulder-girdle (PI. VII, figs. ;5, 4, 5), The clavicular arch is composed
of 3 parts: the posttemporal (pt; supraclavicular I), the supraclavicular (II) (scl)
and the clavicular (cl); as in Syngnathids the postclavicular is wanting. The post-
temporal does not form part of the skull, as is the case in Syngnathids; seen from
the outer side (PI. VII, figs. 3, 5) it appears bifurcated, the upper branch suturally
united to the epiotic (ep), the lower one to the pterotic (sq) ; from the inner face
a process combines with the exoccipital. With its hind end articulates the upper
end of the slender and fairly long supraclavicle (scl), which in turn is articulated
on the outer face of the upper end of the clavicle. The clavicle (cl) resembles to
a certain degree that of the Syngnathids; the two processes p and p' combining
with the dermal plates, the first behind, the latter in front of the pectoral fin, are
easily recognisable as homologous to the parts in Siphonostoma or Hippocampus
lettered in the same way in figs. 2, 3 and 7, PI. Ill; but a great difl'erence is apparent
in the fact, that in Solenostomiis no connection between the clavicle and the
anterior vertebrae has been established; the great anterior expansion of the clavi-
cula used for this connection in Syngnathids is therefore absent here, the corres-
ponding part only being used for connection with the supraclavicle. In this point
some resemblance to Fistalaria is apparent; and the lower part of the clavicle

55 321

resembles that of Fistiilaria still more, as il divides into an ouler (anterior) larger (o),
and an inner (posterior) narrower branch (i). To the latter is joined the greater
part of the scapular arch, only the lower anterior end of the coracoid being con-
nected with the ouler branch; thus a large opening is surrounded by the clavicle
and the coracoid. In Aulostoma the corresponding opening is reduced to a mere
hole through the enlargement of the anterior part of the coracoid ; in the Syngna-
thids, on the other hand, the same space is open ventrally (only closed with
the dermal skeleton) because the coracoid here has not developed any anterior
process.

The scapular arch (Pi. VII, figs. 4, 5), while in general shape recalling that
of Syngnathids, is in some respects intermediate between this and that of Aulosto-
mids, especially of Fisliilaria. The unossified, cartilaginous part of the arch is
proportionally much smaller than in Syngnathids, not very much greater than in
Fistularia. As in the Syngnathids tire scapula (sc) is very small, at first sight
appearing like a pterygial, but the scapular foramen is restricted to the scapular
region; this foramen is narrow, verticalh' elliptic, bounded by the scapula and
])arl of the clavicle. The latter condition might be derived from that found in
Fistularia, if we suppose the thin cartilaginous anterior part of the scapula in the
latter to have been suppressed in Solenostonms.

The coracoid (co) is the largest bone of the arch; its slender anterior branch
is tipped with cartilage, firmly connected with the outer branch of the clavicle;
its lower posterior angle is drawn out into a process (co') apparently corresponding
to that lettered in the same way in the other genera. The 4 pterygials (basais) (ba)
are rather large, resembling those in Syngnathids, being laterally compressed, in
their middle constricted into a narrow stalk; distally their cartilaginous ends are
confluent, forming one continuous semicircle, the upper part of which belongs to
the scapula. The outer face of this semicircular cartilage is even, but the inner
(medial) face (fig. 4) is provided with a number of elevations or columns between
which the tendons from the medial muscles to the fin rays are guided. Ligaments
passing from one to another of these columns, and the skin connecting with their
distal ends, convert the fossæ between them into regular holes for the tendons.
Thus, only the inner faces of the pterygials show structures (cartilaginous) com-
parable to the peculiar osseous excrescences occurring on both faces of the pterygials
in Syngnathids. Of the 4 pterygials the lowermost is by far the largest, as also is
the case in all the other genera"''.

The base of each of the feebly ossified fin-rays embraces a separate small
nodular cartilage, which by means of a saddle-shaped face plays on the convex
margin of the combined pterygial (and scapular) cartilage ; quite as in Syngnathids.
Most of the fin-rays — some of the superior and inferior only being excepted —
are jointed; all are unbranched, the distal ends forming a bundle of extremely
fine threads.

The ven tral s are almost vertical in position, with that face outwards which

322

in most (ishes is liiriied towards tlu' belly. Accordingly, the pnlîic bones (PI. VII,
tig. 3 p) are not lying tlal but stand upright. Those margins, which are usually
as inner margins in contact, are here not only free of each other but diverge,
pointing upwards and outwards; whereas those margins, which are usually the
outer margins and diverge, here converge and (nearly) meet ventrally. Each pubic
bone forms a large erect plate somewhat inclined from the mid -ventral line
towards the lateral body wall ; it is thick behind where the ventral rays are
attached, extremely thin at the upper and anterior margins. The interior is to a
great extent cartilage, and the lower anterior part is almost unossified. The outer
surface carries a strong crest (cr) dividing between the muscles to the lowermost,
spinous, ray and those to the other rays; above and parallel to this crest a smaller
and less prominent one is found in addition. The upper margin of each pubic
is firmly joined to the lateral body-wall (especially through dense connective tissue
to the inside of the second dermal scute from below in the posterior transverse
thoracic row); the lower margin of the anterior part joins the median ventral scute,
here meeting its fellow from the opposite side. The posterior ventral corner (*) of
the thick hind part is tightly fastened to the inside of the lowermost scute of the
last row of the thorax. In this way the skeletal support of the ventral fm-muscles
is strengthened'"'.

Of the 7 rays in the ventral fin the outer (lower) is an undivided spine; the
remaining 6 are biramous, the two main branches parting nearest lo the base in
the innermost (uppermost) rays. Each of the two main branches is again longi-
tudinally split, but the two halves are tightly pressed together. Indistinct traces
of a transverse articulation are visible. In the female some of the peculiar thread-
like appendices for retention and nutrition (?) of the eggs and young are ossified;
these ossifications appear as rather long, slender branches from the divided rays,
except the uppermost one; they are generally twisted in a corkscrew-like manner
and end in a small rounded knob; (counting from below the 2nd ray carries 2,
the 3rd 3, the 4th ô, the 5th 4, the 6th only 1 of these osseous branchlets in an
old and large specimen of S. cyanopterus in my possession)

Number of fin-rays in the specimens examined.

1)2

Sol. cyanopterus.

A d

•26

B d

C 9

1(>

D y

E 9

Sol. paradoxus.

A d

22 ?

23?

B 9

323

In the literature we find the following :

Solen, ci/anoplenis.

Bleeker 1851

(lünther 1860

26-
18

16-17

Duméril 1870

f
\

26"
25

18"

18"
16

2()''
20

Günther 1870

16—18

Jordan and Snyder

1901

Solen, paradoxus.

Seba 1758

, Pallas 1770

c. 25

c. 18

c. 12

Bleeker 1854

t 25

Duméril 1870

27
25

Günther 1870

1 25

Jordan and Snyder

Kini

•il

16 —

Tanaka 1908

c. 23

15 ""

Remaining anatomical features and visceral anatomy.

In the female the inferior (outer) margins of the two ventrals are united at
the base for quite a short distance hut otherwise free of each other; the upper
(inner) margins are fused with the abdominal skin, the fusion reaching to the
front border of the anus ; in this way is formed the often-mentioned brood-sac.
The lining of this sac carries a great number of filaments arranged in longitudinal
rows ; most of the filaments take their origin from all the fin-rays except the
lowermost (outer) spinous ray, but quite a number form one row along the middle
line of the abdomen; the longest and most developed are those of the anterior half
of the sac, but along the fin-rays they are found almost to the hind margin of the
sac, gradually decreasing in length, the hindmost being very small.

Part, if not all, of the filaments on the rays contain a slender, undulated or
twisted bony axis, an outgrowth from the bone of the ray, as mentioned above
under the osteology of the ventrals. This axis only occupies the basal part of the

* The number 26 is given in the description, 18 in the formula.

'* These numbers are given for „Sol, bleekeri A. Dum." which I consider as identical with cya-
nopterus Blk.

"■ The number of caudal rays taken from the figure.

"" Tanaka's species "So/, leptosoma" I regard as a male S. paradoxus. The number of caudal
rays is that given in T.'s figure. Also Bi-eekkk's Sol. brachtjurus is in my opinion = paradoxus; no
number of fin-rays is stated. Kaui> 1856 has the following numbers for "Solcn. paradoxus" P:27, V:7,
Di : 5, Di; 18 — 19, A: 18—19, C: 15, but his "parado.xus" comprises both cyanopterus and paradoxus.
His material of 5 specimens is still in the Museum of Paris and contains 2 paradoxus (1 from Isle de
France, 1 from the Indian Ocean) and H cyanopterus (2 from New (iuinea, 1 from Isle de France; the
latter = "S. bleekeri" Dum.).

1). K. 1). Viilensk.Sclsk. Skr., 7. Il:ukke, naturvidcnsk. uti uKitlioni. Afil. Vlll .î. 42

324 58

filament, scarcely reaching lo llie middle of its length {V\. Ill, fig. 11 ax). When
the filament is laid under the microscope the bony axis appears Iransjiarent and
réfringent, but its bony nature is easily shown through staining, e. g. with aliz-
arine or hæmatoxyline; I suppose it is the structure about which Günther says
(16b, p. 151): "A slightly undulated canal runs along the interior of the filament".
In the filaments from the middle line of the abdominal skin I have found no
bony axis. All the filaments are richly beset with shorter or longer branchlets
or twigs. Each branchlet is expanded at its end into a regular concave disc,
looking like a sucker; this I take to be the special organ of retention for the eggs
and young. I am not able to elucidate the .special manner in which the retention
is brought about, whether each egg is always held by one sucker, and the young
also, or if in the latter case two or more discs are at work. My only specimen
with a few eggs and newly hatched young still contained in the sac (a S. paradoxus)
is not well enough preserved to show things definitely; it seems to have been
somewhat dried and shrivelled before being preserved in alcohol, but the presence
of traces of discs fastened to the eggs, one on each, and also to the embryos, I have
ascertained with certainty. Whether the filaments are also organs of nutrition I am
not in a position to decide; they are pi-ovided with blood-vessels, from the stem
entering every branchlet; thus the nutritive function seems to me to be at least
possible, a secretion to the interior of the sac being probable. Certainly many
questions of great interest regarding the biology and development of these curious
fishes are to be solved, and it is to be hoped that some day one of the zoologists
having the opportunity of observing the living animals in their natural surround-
ings will take up the task.

Possibly the whole interior lining of the brood-sac belongs to the ventrals;
the real condition might perhaps be, that both ventrals as in the Gobies are
coalesced along their upper or inner margins and the coalesced part again fused
with the abdominal skin; if this interpretation should prove to be the correct one,
the power of sending out filaments would be possessed only by the fin; this question
— perhaps of no great importance — could most probably be solved by an examina-
tion of the histology of appropriate material or of developmental stages.

On the "thorax" only the dorsal part of the muscles is fully developed, most
of the lateral body-wall below the vertebral column being devoid of muscles; the
same is the case on the posterior, slender portion of the body with part of the
ventral body-wall. The myomeres are here well developed along the whole part
provided with dermal ossifications and further along a narrow strip close to the
ventral middle line of the belly, from the ventrals to about the anus; the inter-
vening lateral space of the body-wall, covering the side of the intestine, is — like
the "linea alba" — devoid of muscles. No division into myomeres is seen in the
strong dorsal muscles reaching from the skull to the level of the 3rd transverse
row of scutes; and this part of the musculature is provided with a flat strong
ossification (PI. Ill, fig. 10 td), corresponding to that found in Fistularia, Aulostoma,

59 325

and Xerophis ophidian; narrow in I'lonl, where it firmly joins the epiolic, it widens
gradually backwards, finally dissolving into a number of threads. Between the
skull and the first transverse row of scutes it may be seen through the skin, the
remaining part being more or less concealed by the overlying upper members of
the 3 anterior transverse rows of scutes.

The branchial cavities of the left and right sides communicate through a
large, oval opening (PI. VII, fig. 3 o) under the branchial skeleton, a condition only
found in a few other fishes (e. g. Zeugoptenis and some other flounders). There
are 4 complete gills (i. e. composed each of 2 rows of branchial lamellæ) (PI. Ill,
fig. 11 I — IV) and a well-developed pseudobranch (fig. 11 ps); the 5 gill slits on
each side are small, oblique, somewhat like button-holes in shape (as in Syngna-
thids), and as stated above not provided with gill-rakeis. The branchial laminæ
are rather short and clumsy, intermediate in shape between the type found in
Syngnathids and that of fishes generally; their number in each row from 6 to 12,
the anterior row of the first gill having 9, the postei-ior of the last gill only 6.
The pseudobranch consists of a single row of 8 leaves arranged along the inner,
posterior border of the hyomandibular and preoperculum, in front of the first slit.
As in Syngnathids the gills are not restricted to the gill-arches but for a great
part take their origin above and below these from the soft walls of the pharynx;
the rows are almost vertical in spite of the oblique position of the gill-arches."'

As in Syngnathids the alimentary canal (PI. Ill, fig. Ill is simple, straight,
without any externally visible demarcation between stomach and intestine, and
without mesentery. The muscular oesophagus (oe) widens evenh' into a thin-walled,
somewhat spindle-shaped dilatation, distended with food; it suddenly narrows
where the intestine passes from the "thorax" into the slender part of the body,
just above the root of the ventrals and below the most expanded part of the air-
bladder. Immediately in front of this narrowing the dilatation ventrally fills out
the space between the two halves of the pelvis and the posterior end of the liver,
forming here a kind of cuneiform sacculation, no doubt only an accidental adapta-
tion to the given space, due to the state of stuffing with food in the specimen
dissected. On the ventral side of the anterior half of the spindle-shaped dilatation,
in the median line, the bile-duct enters (at bd in the figure), as in Syngnathids
the only indication of the beginning of the intestine (duodenum); thus the greater
part of what at first sight seems to be a "stomachal" dilatation is really formed
by the small intestine. The remaining part of the latter fills most of the body
cavity in the slender, posterior part of the body; at the spot * in the figure a
circular constriction marks otT the beginning of the rectum (r) *. The fold and
the small sacculation apparent at ** in the figure is — as far as I can see — only
an accidental formation due to an accumulation of the contents.

The rectum and adjacent parts unfortunately were somewhat damaged during mj- dissection of
the only specimen which I could sacrifice; hence 1 am not quite sure about a few features, e. g. the
possible existence of an urinary Ijladder.

42'

326 (it)

The liver (1) is laleraily compressed with sharp ventral edge. The left pari
is seen below the alimenlarj' canal, while the right side of the latter is covered by
the right part. From an incision in the posterior edge of the riglit part proceeds
the bile-duel, Unning upwards and forwards to the intestine. The gall-bladder is
situated as in Syngnathids between the right side of the alimentary canal and
the right part of the liver; the bile-ducts from the liver, the portal vein and
hepatic artery as well as the hepatic vein seem to be arranged quite as in the
Syngnathids.

The alimentary canal in the dissected specimen contained rather large crusta-
ceans (Palæmonids; one fairly well preserved specimen was about 12 mm. in
length). ■'"

The existence of an air-bladder has hitherto been denied (cf. Günther 16b
p. 151 ; BouLENGER 4 c p. 633). Nevertheless, if sufficiently transparent specimens are
held against the light an oval, clear body is always to be seen over the intestine
just below the first dorsal, and always in the same way filling a downward bend
of the intestine, thus suggesting the presence of an air-bladder. Through dissection
the suspicion is confirmed and the fact easily settled. The air-bladder (bl) is irre-
gularly pyriform, anteriorly narrowing into a point reaching about to the hind
end of the oesophagus, posteriorly also tapering but more abruptly, and ending
behind the level of the ventrals.

The kidneys (PI. Ill, fig. 11 k) reach from below the second vertebra to the
end of the body cavity. From the level of the 12th vertebra they are united into
one body containing in its middle, between the two ducts, the right cardinal vein,
which seems the only one developed and is anteriorly embedded in the right kidney.
The anterior part of each kidney represents the "head kidney", as it contains
a large "pronephric glomerulus" (or "glomus"), from which the wide, straight
duct passes backwards through the whole organ; at some distance behind the
"glomus" urinary tubules appear and are present in the whole remaining part of
the kidney. As usual in teleosts the "head-kidney" has no tubules, consisting only
of lymphatic tissue surrounding the "glomus" and the beginning of the duct; the
latter part is not convoluted, as otherwise in bony fishes, but straight like its con-
tinuation through the secreting nephros. The secreting tubules of the latter are
short, combining to wide collecting tubules regularly grouped around the duct into
which they debouch. No malpighian corpuscles (or glomeruli) are to be
seen. Thus the kidney of Solenostomiis only in the latter respect resembles that of
Syngnathids; in almost every other respect it is not only different but very peculiar;
especially so in preserving the whole pronephric duct and the pronephric glo-
merulus, a feature very rarely met with in bony fishes (from my own experience
I only know of Zoarces viviparus possessing that structure in the adult state). In
Syngnathids a "head-kidney" is not only absent in the adult, but a "pronephros"
("glomus") seems not at all to be formed in the embryo according to Huot, whose

61 327

statemenls I am able to confirm for embryos in that slage of developnienl at
which they leave the marsupium.

The anterior part of the testis (te), situated under the posterior part of the
air-bladder, is somewhat irregularly coiled, the remaing part being straight and
gradually tapering into a narrow thread lying close to its fellow from the other
side below the kidney; above the rectum the testis (or vas deferens, no boundary
between the two being observable) widens a little again. If tlie two male ducts
are united at all it can only be at the junction with the urethra, like the case in
Syngnathids. (As stated p. 825 [59] this part unfortunately has been somewhat
damaged.) The male organ is of the same peculiar type as that of Syngnathids, i. e.
it forms a simple hollow sac or tube.

I regret that the scarcity of my material did not allow me also to dissect a
female specimen. I have only had the opportunity lo look at a partly dissected
specimen in the British Museum (probably the one which had been used by
GiJNTHER for his anatomical statements) and to write down the following note:
"The ovaries are situated in the anterior part of the body cavity, each with a
long narrow oviduct; the two oviducts seem to unite into an enlarged portion
above the rectum"^'.

Family Solenostomidœ.

Two dorsal fins, the anterior spinous. Ventrals present, very large. Tail short,
caudal fin very large. Skin with star-like dermal ossifications in transverse and
longitudinal rows. No visible lateral line. Gill-openings wide, opercular membranes
free of isthmus. Nasals, infraorbitals and metapterygoid wanting. Hyoid complete;
branchial skeleton reduced. Supraclavicie present, postclavicle absent; scapular
foramen closed. Vertebrae without articulai processes, upper and lower spines long
and well developed. The 3 anterior vertebræ immovable, suturally united. Ribs
absent. Pseudobranchia present, well developed. Gills 4, gill-rakers absent, branchial
slits 5. Air-bladder present, without duct. Intestinal canal simple, straight; without
stomachal sac or pyloric appendages.

Genus Solenostomns Lacép.
General form laterally compressed. Snout tubular, very long and strongly
compressed. Mouth an oblique slit, bounded above by the premaxilla, toothless.
Chin with a barbel, more or less concealed. Olfactory organ an open pit, smooth
in the female, provided with radiating lamellæ in the male. 3 opercular bones pre-
sent, subopercular extremely thin, bristle-like; inlcropercular lamellar, concealed.
One bifid branchiostegal. Septum between the branchial cavities perforated by a
large opening. Anterior part of body high, forming a thorax, posterior part slender;
tail very shorl, its anterior part high, dorsally and ventrally forming a kind of

;r28 ü2

hump, carrying llu' second dorsal and the anal; the posterior part carrying the
caudal fin lower. The soft skin, covering the dermal ossifications, with scattered
small (more or less developed, in some places branched) cutaneous papillæ.

Anterior dorsal with 5 spines, short but high, at posterior border of thorax,
opposite to ventrals; the latter very large, with one spine and 6 bifurcated soft
rays; free in male, united to abdomen in the female, forming a brood-sac. Second
dorsal and anal opposite, long and rather low, composed of numerous soft, un-
branched rays, like those of the pectorals. Caudal fin extremely large, with strong,
unbranched rays, the middle ones longer and somewhat more slender than
the rest.

Glossohyal and basibranchials absent, epibranchials absent or quite rudiment-
ary; pharyngobranchials apparently one — but composed of two — on each side,
provided with teeth like the lower pharyngeals.

Di. 5, V. 7, C. 16.

Solenostomus cyanopterus Bleeker 1859.

Syn: S. paradoxum Blk. 18.')2, 1853.

S. paradoxus Kaup 1856, pro parte.
S. cyanopterus Dumeril 1870.
S. ßleekeri „ „

Snout rather stout, its height in the middle of its length being in the male
about '/:i of its length (from anterior margin of the eye to the end of the snout),
in the female about '/4. Caudal peduncle stout, the membrane of the caudal fin
beginning very near or almost close to the second dorsal and anal (closest
in the male). Profile of second dorsal and anal evenly arched. Colour brown,
minutely dotted with black and whitish, or pink with small purplish-brown
spots. Eye red. First dorsal fin with two large, ovate, black ocelli between the first
3 rays.

P. 24— 27, D. 5/18— 20, 4.16-20, C. 16, V. 7.

Solenostomus paradoxus (Pallas).

Syn: Solenostomus varius rostro serrato etc. Seba 1758.
Fistularia paradoxa Pallas 1770.
Solenostomus paradoxus Lacép. 180;i.
Solenostomus „ pro parte Kaup 1806.

Solenostomus paradoxus Dumeril 1870.
Solenostoma brachyurum Bleeker 1855.
Solenostoma leptosoma Tanaka I'JOS.

Snout elongated, its height (apparently in both sexes) in the middle being
about '7 of its length (from anterior margin of eye). Caudal peduncle slender, the
membrane of the caudal fin beginning at a distance from the second dorsal and
anal of more than half the length of these fins (about - a in the female, '/i; in the

63 329

male). The rays in the middlf and behind the middle of the anal and second
dorsal somewhat elongated, thns giving the profile of these fins a higher and more
acutely arched shape than in the preceding species.

Colour light brownish, irregularly mottled with orange spots; membrane of
first dorsal with two dark ocelli between the first 3 rays.
P. 24 -26, D. 5 18— 22, A. 18-23, C. 16, V. 7.

Conclusion.
With the preceding part of the present contribution I have finished my ac-
count of the principal structural features, especially the osteology, of the fishes
which in my first contribution I considered to be a group of related forms and
(23 b p. 42 [4]) provisionally had designated as "Hemibranchii (-^ Gastrosteidæ and
Aulorhynchidæ) + "Lophobranchii" (Solenostomidæ and Syngnalhidæ)", at the same
time pointing out a number of characteristics in the composition of the cranial skel-
eton, which seemed to me an expression of natural affinity. Since the publication
of my first paper I have had the great satisfaction of learning that the author of
the latest attempts at a systematic arrangement of the Class Pisces, C. T. Regan, has
adopted my view (45 b and c). Furthermore he has given the group as circum-
scribed by me a systematic name, namely Solenichthyes, to replace the, of course,
quite provisional designation quoted above. Originally, however, Regan only in-
cluded Amphisile and Centriscus under the name Solenichthyes (cfr. 23 b Note 1, p.
42); but later (45) he has extended its domain to embrace all the forms pointed
out by me as related. Although I do not like the name on purely etymological
grounds*, I adopt it and am going to use it in the following systematic arrange-
ment, in which I shall try to condense the principal characteristics set forth and
treated at length in the descriptive parts of my work.

Suborder Solenichthyes.

Snout tubiform, mouth terminal, the ethmovomerine part of skull and man-
dibular suspensory parts anterior to hyomandibular being greatly elongated; pala-
tine short and connected with front end of vomer; metapterygoid, if present,
removed from contact with the hyomandibular. Parietals and opisthotics absent;
pterotics joining cranial base below, preventing exoccipitals from meeting pro-
otics. Opercular apparatus consisting of the 3 usual bones. Lateral line bones of
head reduced in number or absent; infraorbitals, if present, only represented
by preorbitals, never containing any lateral line canal. Anterior 3—6 vertebræ
immovable. Ribs absent. Gills 4, pseudobranchia present; branchial slits 5.

liecaii.se tlu- fishes themselves are not tiil)iroiiii, only then- snouts being so.

330 64

Intestinal canal simple, without stomachal sac. Air-bladder present, ductless.
Ventrals (if present) abdominal in position, 5 — 7 rays. Fin-rays of pectoral, (se-
cond) dorsal and anal fins distally unbranched.

A. Post-clavicle and metapterygoid present; anterior 4—6 vertebrae elongated,
more or les modified; vertebræ with articular processes. (4 — 5 branchi-
ostegal rays.) Lateral line canals present (at least on head: Cenlriscus):
Aulostomata ("Bouches-en-flùle").

1st Family: Centriscidœ.

Mouth toothless. Body laterally compressed, stiff; tail short, movable. All
the components of mandibular suspensorium present; palatine, ento- and meta-
pterygoid connected with the elongated etlimo-vomerine part of skull. Nasal and
preorbital well developed, the first containing a lateral line canal. Hyoid of normal
composition; 4 branchiostegal rays; branchial skeleton complete, upper and lower
pharyngeals carrying teeth. Posttemporal suturally united to skull; supraclavicle
present; scapular foramen enclosed in scapula; pectoral pterygials stout, leaving
no interspaces. Anterior 5 — 6 vertebræ elongated, their transverse processes, except
those of the first and last, firmly connected with large dermal plates. Two dorsal
fins, anterior spinous, the spines, except 1 — 3 of the foremost, fused with their
interneurals; posterior dorsal opposite to anal. Outer ray of ventral spinous. Two
nasal openings. Appendices pyloricæ absent.

Genera: Centriscus, Amphisile.

2nd Family: Aulostomidœ.

Moulh toothed; body elongated, tail short. Occipital condyle convex. Ecto-
pterygoid wanting, other suspensory bones present; palatine, ento- and metaptery-
goid (in Fistularia also symplectic) connected with ethmo-vomerine part of skull.
Nasal quite rudimentary or absent; preorbital rudimentary or absent. Hyoid com-
posed as usual of 5 pieces; 4 or 5 branchioslegals; branchial skeleton reduced,
only one basibranchial being ossified, 4th epibranchial absent, the remaining 3
more or less separated from their cerato-branchials; Isl pharyngobranchial absent,
2nd— 4th and lower pharyngeals provided with teeth, l^osttemporal present, supra-
clavicle present or absent ; scapular foramen enclosed in scapula ; pterygials elongated,
leaving interspaces between. Anterior 4 vertebræ much elongated and suturally
united, their transverse and spinous processes forming continuous lamellæ. Trans-
verse processes of free abdominal vertebræ divided into an anterior and a posterior
part. First dorsal fin, if present, spinous, second dorsal opposite to anal. Ventral
fin with 6 rays, the outer unbranched, but jointed. Lateral line canals developed.
Two nasal openings. One or two appendices pyloricæ.

Genera: Aiilostoma, Fistularia.

65 331

B. Postclavicle and metapterygoid absent; anterior 3 vertebræ suturally
united, not specially elongated; vertebræ without articular processes.
(1—3 branchiostegal rays.) Lateral line canals absent. Lopho branchii.

3rd Family: Solenostomidce.

Mouth toothless; body laterally compressed, tail short. Nasal and infraorbitals
(preorbitals) absent. Palatine, ecto- and entopterygoid and symplectic connected
with ethmo-vomerine part of skull. Hyoid of normal composition; 1 branchiostegal
ray; branchial skeleton reduced, glossohyal and basibranchials wanting, epibranchials
absent or quite rudimentary, only 2nd and 3rd pharyngobranchials present, remote
from ceratobranchials, provided with teeth like the lower pharyngeals. Posttemporal
attached to skull, supraclavicle present ; scapular foramen closed below, being sur-
rounded by scapula and clavicle; pterygials elongated with open spaces between,
not fixed between dermal plates. Upper and lower spinous processes long and
slender. Skin with large stellate ossifications, leaving large spaces unprotected.
Gill-opening wide, opercular membrane free of isthmus. Two dorsal fins, anterior
spinous; posterior opposite to anal; tail-fin very large. Ventrals very large, with
7 rays, the outer spinous. Nasal organ an open pit. Appendices pyloricæ none.

Genus: Solenostomus.

4th Family: Syngnathidœ.

Mouth toothless; body elongated, angular or laterally compressed, tail long.
Nasal absent; 2 or 3 infraorbitals (preorbitals) present. Palatine, entopterygoid
(sometimes also ectopterygoid) and symplectic connected with snout part of skull.
Hyoid only composed of 3 — 4 pieces; 1—3 branchiostegal rays; branchial skeleton
reduced, basibranchials being absent or reduced to 2, hypobranchials 1—2, epi-
branchials 3, remote from ceratobranchials or completely absent, 2nd and 3rd or
only 2nd pharyngobranchinl present, toothless as also lower pharyngeals. Post-
temporal suturally united to skull; supraclavicle absent; upper part of clavicle
expanded and connected firmly with transverse processes of the two foremost
vertebræ. Scapular foramen continued below into interspace between clavicle and
coracoid; pterj'gials with open interspaces, their distal parts fixed between dermal
scutes. In some members coraco-scapular and pterygial skeleton absent as also
pectoral fins. Transverse processes on vertebræ well developed, connected with
dermal plates; spinous processes low crests, except on the vertebræ carrying the
dorsal fin, the spinous processes of which are elevated and divided, each supporting
a group of interneurals; a secondary transverse process on the same vertebræ,
behind the primary one, for attachment of muscles moving the dorsal fin. Skin
with complete armour of dermal plates. Gill-lamellæ few on each branchial arch,
short and clumsy, with large transverse leaflets. Gill-opening dorsal, very small,
the margins of opercular membrane being largely fused to isthmus and body. One
dorsal fin, anal small, below dorsal, or absent; caudal fin small, in some members

I). K. I). Vidensk. Selsk. Slu-.. 7. liiilikc, nalurviilensk. dH miitlifin. .Aid. VIII. J. 43

332 66

rudimenlary or quite absent; in latter case tail more or less prehensile. Ventrals
absent. Two nasal openings. No pyloric appendices.

a. Subfamilj': Syngnathini. Preorbital bones 2; nuclial plaies generally 2
(one prenuchal and one nuchal); rarely 3 nuchals (one prenuchal and
2 nuclials).

Genera: Siphonosioma, Syngnathiis, Ichihyocampus, Nannocampusj, Urocampus,
Doryichthys, Leptoichthysf, Coelonotusf, Stigmatophora', Nerophis, Protocampus f*.

b. Subfamily: Hippocampini. Preorbital bones 3; nuchals 3 or 2; in latter
case prenuchal wanting.

Genera: Hippocampus, Soleiiognutluis, Phyllopleryx, Gastrolokens, Acentronuraf.
-^. 3 nuchals, a prenuchal or "corona" being present.
Hippocampus, Solenognatlms.
-| — '\-. 2 nuchals, a prenuchal absent.
Gastrotokeus, Phyllopteryx.

The genera marked with f I have not seen.

That all the members of the group Solenichthyes are aberrant and much
specialised is evident, and that they must all be derived from one common stock
of less specialised forms is hardly to be doubted. But where their parentage is to
be sought, or to which of the other groups of existing Teleosts they are most
nearly related, is to me still an open question. As fossils, carrying quite the same
stamp as in modern time, they date far back in the tertiary formations; the existing
genera Amphisile, Aulostoma and Solenostomus as well as true Syngnathids {"Syngna-
thus bolcensis" Z\gn.) are found in Eocene (Ml. Bolca and Mt. Postale), Fistularia**'
at least in Oligocène formations (Glarus schists); unforUinateiy the extinct Eocene
genera Urosphen, Solenorhynchus and Calamostoma (Mt. Bolca and Mt. Postale),
which are undoubtedly Solenichthyes, the first belonging to the Aulostomidœ, the

' 3 nuchals are present, a small prenuchal, a large first nuchal and a smaller second nuchal. Of
the two preorbitals the posterior (true preorbital) is very short, the anterior extremely long.

■■ I have omitted the genus Osphyolax (with a single species: pelluciäus) described by Cope (Proc.
Ac. Sc. Philadelphia, 1875, p. 450, PI. 25; the description repeated in Jordan and Evermann 21a p. 775).
1 am quite sure tliat it is due to a mistake. Judging from tlie figures and description it must simply
be a Nerophis œqiwreiis, the dorsal fin of which has been damaged and deprived of its larger anterior
part. This would e.\pla)n not only the shortness of tlie dorsal fin, containing 16 rays in stead of 40—44,
but also the peculiar dorsal tube in front of the fin, whicli is said to be "closed above by a series of
small radiate ossicles in the median line, between which the cavity may be entered by small bodies."
These small ossicles evidently are the upper ends of interspinous bones with their peculiar osseous
expansions, which have been laid bare by the abrasion of the front part of the dorsal fin. The " free
superior edges (of lateral scutes), which form a series of longitudinal lateral grooves" in tlie "lumbar
region" I imagine are also due to accident !and drying'.').

*" "Fistularia teniiirostris" Ag. from Mt. Bolca cannot in my opinion be a true Fistularia; but it
belongs at all events to the Solenichtltyes, as also the genus Pseudosijngnattius (Syngnatlius opisthopterus
Ag.), which is no Syugnathid.

67 333

two latter lo the Solenostomidœ ' . do nut throw any light upon the question of
derivation from other forms, but they may prove to be of use in filling up some
of the gaps between the now existing genera. Leaving aside the laller point for
the present and only considering the existing forms reviewed above I lliink it will
be agreed, that the Syngnathids are the most aberrant and most strongly
specialised Solenichthyes. Compared with the other forms the Syngnathids have
acquired a more complete dermal armour and an elongated tail; at the same time
thev have lost Ihe first dorsal and Ihe ventrals, and reduced or lost the anal; the
second dorsal, taking up the function of locomotion, has generally been lengthened
and often encroaches upon a greater or lesser part of the trunk; the melapterj'-
goid is lost, the shoulder girdle has lost the postclavicle (and supracla viele), the
clavicle, expanding above, has been connected firmly to the anterior vertebrae,
while the pectoral skeleton is weakened like the branchial skeleton. Less trans-
formed are the Solenostomidœ which have kept the first (spinous) dorsal fin and
the ventrals (with a spine); the metapterygoid is lost, the shoulder girdle has lost
its postclavicle but is otherwise complete, while the pectoral skeleton is weakened,
tending greatly towards the structure found in Syngnathids, as also does the bran-
chial skeleton and the vertebræ in losing the articular processes. Upon the whole
the majority of characteristics combine the Solenostomids with the Syngnathids,
with which they have been placed since Cuviek established his Lophobranchii; the
correctness of his view in this respect may now I think be regarded as settled.
But on the other hand the Solenoslomidce show likenesses with different members
of the group Aulostomata; some of these likenesses may perhaps seem to be of
less importance — a matter, however, by no means easy to judge with any degree
of certainty. Thus, the extreme shortness of the tail in proportion to the trunk
and head, the lateral compression of body and head, the mandibular barbel remind
one of Aulosloma (whije the position of the mouth slit is more like that of Syngna-
thids and Centriscids). Further, there are some external likenesses with Centriscas
in the (dorsal) fins — as already alluded to by Regan (45 a and c) — **, in the
stiffness of the trunk, and, I might add, in the dermal ossifications: from a four-
sided shape with cruciform crests, which the large lateral plates show in the adult
Centriscus and all the scales in the young ones, the stellate dermal scutes in Sole-
nostomus — and besides also the plate-forms found in Sijngnathidœ (cfr. Hippo-
campus and those of young Syngnathus) — could easily be derived.

In the group Aulostomata the family Aulostomidce approaches the group Lopho-
branchii {Solenostomidœ and Siingnathidæ) in the commencing reduction of the
branchial skeleton and in the fact that the upper parts of the rows of branchial

■ In a forthcoming paper I liope to show that Calamostoma {breviculum Ag ) must belong to
the Solenostomidœ. That the genus Solenostomus itself is represented in the Mt. Boica formation, as
also Amphisile, I know from photographs, kindly sent to me from the Museo Civico in Verona.

" BouLENGEK (4 c, p. 633) has also expressed the opinion that "the unique genus Solen, may be
regarded as in many respects intermediate between the Centriscidæ and the Syngnathidæ."

43'

334 68

lamellæ leave the gill-arches and take their origin from the pharyngeal wall;
further in the shape of the pectoral pterygials, and in the weakening of the anterior
border of the scapular foramen; if the weak or cartilaginous anterior part of the
scapula atrophied, we should have the condition found in Solenostomus, from which
a step farther leads to that of Syngnathidce. The large ossified nuchal tendons, so
characteristic of the Aulostomidœ , also occur in Solenostomidœ and at least in one
of the Synynathidœ , namely Neruphis ophidian. The genus Fistularia, besides, has
the symplectic connected with the ethmoid region of the skull as in the Lopho-
branchii, and with the Syngnathidœ it shares the loss of the first dorsal fin, which
in Aulostoma is so to speak going to disappear. In both Aiilostoma and Fistularia
the outer ray of the ventral fin has given up its spinous character, perhaps a step
towards degradation of the fin; the separation of the pelvic bones in the median
line and the weak structure of these bones might possibly point in the same
direction.

In spite of the many features of far going specialisation the family Centriscidœ
must be considered to contain upon the whole the least aberrant members of the
suborder Solenichthyes; to this conclusion point the facts, that all the components
of the mandibular suspensory parts are present, that nasals are well developed,
that the branchial skeleton is complete, the shape of the pectoral pterygials, the
structure of the ventral fins etc.

Notes.

Aulostoma.

1 p. 270 [4]. The scales are regarded by most authors as simply ctenoid. A figure is
found in Kner (28 b, p. 259 [28]); the scale represented shows seven teeth, united Ijasalty into
one part, which appears separated Ijy a distinct boundary line from the main scale-plate; that
this representation is incorrect can easily l)e verified.

2 p. 271 [5]. Tlie very conspicuous system of "inscriptiones tendineæ" is — as far as I
know — only mentioned in recent times, by A. S. Woodwakd (59, p. 375), in his definition of
the genus Aulostoma: "Intermuscular bones very numerous and long". But already Agassiz
wtio, curiously enough, does not appear to have known tlieir existence in the living forms,
states for the fossil A. bolcense (1, T. 4, p. 282): "I)e nombreuses arêtes musculaires effilées parais-
sent avoir soutenu les muscles tout le long de la colonne vertébrale", and fig. 3 of his PI. 35
stiows tliese structures very distinctly.

3 p. 274 [8]. Bridge (5, p. 576) has correctly described the interspinous bones for the un-
paired fins in Aulostoma chinense; Ijut he does not mention the anterior ray-less elements of
the anterior part of the trunk, in front of the spinous section of the dorsal fin.

69 33Ô

■• 274 [8]. Kner (28 b, p. 257 [26]) declares that the dorsal spines in Aiilosloma (chinense)
are not true spines, without, however, demonstrating^ why: "Sie tragen ebenso wenig die
Merkmale eines Stachels an sich, wie jene der Xotacanlhinen, von denen später die Rede
sein wird '. Die Strahlen der übrigen Flossen sind gegliedert und am Ende so breit und com-
press, wie bei den Lophobranchiern. Die Gliederung ist ziemlich spärlich, äusserst zart und
sogar oft leicht zu übersehen, der Obergang vom un- zum gegliederten Strahle erfolgt hier
fast unmeiklich. Nur die Strahlen der Bauchllossen und die letzten der zweiten Dorsale und
der Anale sind zugleich gabelig getheilt".

5 p. 279 [13]. Very little is to be found in the literature about the osteology of Aulostoma ;
generally the few remarks apply to the family (or "superfamily "1 including both Aulostoma
and Fistiilaria, and as the latter apparently has been examined offener, the remarks seem
mostly or wholly based on Fistiilaria, nothing particularly concerning Aiilosloma being stated.
This is the case e. g. with the statement found in several authors about the four anterior
vertebræ being elongated (Cope, Gill (liSSti, .Iordan & Hvermann, Regan etc.) or elongated
and fused together (Günther, Sm. Woodward, Boulenger), and the absence of ribs. A few-
remarks concerning the cranial skeleton are given by Cuvier (9 b, T. 2, p. (525). After having
pointed out some cranial features characteristic for his family "'Bouches en fti'ite" (i. e. :
Fistiilaria, Aiilosloma. Centri.fciis and Amphisile', especially regarding the composition of the
elongated snout ("Les frontaux en torment la base; I'ethmoide, excessivement alongé, en fait
la plus grande partie; et le vomer, placé au bout du précédent, forme la pointe."), he con-
tinues: "Dans la fistiilaria tabacaria, le museau est en demi-cône grêle et un peu creux à sa
face inférieure. Les apophyses anté et post-orbitaire continuent la courbe régulière et à peu
près circulaire du bord orbital du frontal, de sorte que plus des deux tiers des orbites sont
entourés par les frontaux." It is quite evident from this description, that Aulostoma is meant
instead of Fistiilaria, and every doubt is removed, when we read the description of "I'au/o-
stome chinois", quoted below p. 339 [73] note 14. Through some mistake the names have
simply been exchanged.

The most important contributions are given by Starks (55); after having pointed out
the characteristics for the "superfamily " e. g. that "parietals are absent, pterotic interposed
between and entirely separating prootic from exoccipital; condyle of basioccipital a round
knob" etc. (p. 624\ he states for Aulostoma: "post-temporal not united to cranium; palatines
united to each other and to cranium; each transverse process behind fourth vertebra is
formed equally by a process from each adjoining vertebra (or each end of each vertebra
carries a half of each transverse process)"; and p. 629 he gives the following description of
the skull: "The epiotics are large, low, conical bones on each side of the supraoccipital. Each
articulates to the frontal anteriorly, to the exoccipital posteriorly, and to the pterotic at its
outer edge. The pterotic forms the posterior lateral angle of the cranium. It is anterior to
the exoccipitals, which form, with the basioccipital, a jjosterior projection. The exocci|)itals
project downwards on each side far below the condyle of the basioccipital. They meet
broadly above the foramen magnum." A full and in all essentials very correct descri|)tion is
given of the shoulder girdle, illustrated with a figure. The only point in this description I
wish to correct is the statement on p. 630: "The hypocoracoid (my coracoid) is attached
along its entire anterior edge to the clavicle without leaving the usual opening between."
The opening is really found, but very small indeed; cf. my fig. 5, PI. III.

The branchial arches are figured by Bathke (44, Tab, I, Fig. 4, Aulostoma (Fistnlaria)
chinen.se). The figure is correct in every essential; his description, given below, as well as
the explanation of the figure and the tabular summary on p. 19 show, that R.'s interjjretation
of the component parts is also the right one. He writes on p. 17: 'Anmerkung. Eine sehr
merkwürdige Abweichung von der Regel, nach welcher bei den Gräthenfischen die Kiemen-

I have not been able to find anything about the Notacantliini in the continuation of Kneh's
work in tlie 43tli and 44th vols, of the Wiener Sitzungsberichte.

336 70

bogen gebildet sind, bietet die Fialularia (Aulostoma) chiiiénsis dar. Bei ihr hangen nur die
zu dem vordersten Bogen geliörigen Segmente, deren es 3 giebt, unter einander innig zusam-
men: von den 4 Segmenten aber, die einem jeden der 2 folgenden Bogen angehören, ist bei
Exemplaren dieses Fisches, die eine Länge von fast 1'/- Fuss haben, das dritte und äusserst
kleine von dem /.weiten und beträchllich grossen ungefähr um 3 bis 4 Linien nach ol)en hin
entfernt; und um eben so weit stehen audi die beiden Segmente von einander ab, die dem
vierten oder hintersten Kiemenbogen zugehören, und wovon das oberste dem vierten Segmente
der beiden davor liegenden Kiemenbogen entspricht. Die Lücke zwischen den angegebenen
Gliedern wird allein durch die Haut des Schlundes ausgefidlt." The elongated glossoliyal is
noticed on p. 4. On the other side the statement about the opercular apparatus being only
composed of 2 jjieces (1. c. p. 76) is wrong. Rathke's figure is copied by Brühl (6 a, Tab. IV,
fig. 11) and his statements referred to 1. c. p. 119; and also repeated by Duvernoy in Cuvier's
Leçons, T. Vil, p. 257, p. 2()8. This information seems to have been quite overlooked later.
The next author who mentions the branchial skeleton is Cope (8, p. 457) who (incorrectly)
states: "Superior branchihyals (= epibranchials) cartilage, three superior pharyngeals (= pha-
ryngobranchials)."

'' p. 280 [14]. But little information regarding the visceral anatomy of the Aulostomidœ
or Fislularidu' is found in the literature.

Already Duvernoy (in Cuvier's Leçons etc. 2. Ldit., 4th vol., 2, p. 143> pointed out that
in Cuvier's family "Les boiiches-en-flùte" the intestinal canal did not possess any stomachal
blind-sac; he adds: "Le canal alimentaire semble tout dune venue; à peine peut-on y recon-
naître une première partie distincte qui serait restomae." But Duvernoy seems only to have
examined (U'litriscus scolopax', not Fisiitlario nor Anlostoma (nor Amphisile).

Of internal structures in Aulostoma Günther (16 a, p. 537) gives the following account:
"The stomach is spacious, elongate, with thin membranes, which become thicker towards
the pylorus; it ])asses without curvature or dilatation into the intestine, which is extremely
short, quite straight, without curve or circumvolution, and rather wider at its commencement
than posteriorly; two pyloric appendages of moderate size on each side of the pyloric por-
tion of the stomach. Air bladder large. "

In the stomach G. found remains of small fish. (Lacêpede 31, T. 10, \). 101 mentions
fish-eggs and worms") Curiously enough neither Günther nor later authors mention the
position of the anal opening close behind the venlrals and far from the anal fin.

The nund)er of gills, the presence of a iiseudobranchia and the slit behind the 4th gill-
arch are rightly mentioned by previous authors (Lacépède, Günther, Jordan etc.).

Fistularia.

7 p. 281 [15]. Minute dermal asperities in F'istularians are mentioned for the first time
by Klunzinger i27, p. 5]5\ In a very young specimen, 13 Ctm. long, from the Red Sea, which
he considered as representing a new sjjecies {Fisliilaria rillosa Klzgr.) he found the " Rumpf
dicht mit kurzen weichen Dörnchen oder Härchen überzogen." Later Hilgendorf (17, p.231)
observed the same asperities in two small specimens, one (V"'8 mm.) from Japan, another from
New Britain, and concluded that they as well as Klunzinger's F. villosa simply were young
stages of F. serrala Caw., "die im erwachsenen Zustande nackt ist.' Apparently without know-
ing Hilgendorfs observations LÜTKEN (33, p. 584 [176]) also declared that F. oillosa Klzg. must
be the young F. scrrota, to which he referred a specimen of 130 mm. length in the Museum

* I very much regret in my first contribution (1908) to have completely overlooked that Cuvier's
Leçons, 1. c. p. 143, and especially p. 365, contain a complete description of the alimentarj' canal of
Centrisciis scolopax; inter alia it points out the entrance of the bile-duct, and concludes: "Ici, comme
dans les cyprins, l'œsophage et l'estomac réunis, sont rudimentaires." On p. 492 the liver is described,
p. 564 the gall-bladder mentioned, and p. 612, absence of the pancreas.

71 337

of Copenhagen, coated wtth spindets; and further, LCtken stated that he found a similar
coating well developed on the tail and posterior part of the body of a F. tabacaria of 280 mm.
length and not completely disappeared from the tail of another, still larger specimen of
415 mm. length ; hence he concluded that the species F. serrata and tabacaria both went
tlirough a "(';7/o.srt- stage", which in the latter apjjarently was of greater duration. That
LCtken (like Hilgendorf; considered „F. scrrala" as always naked in the adult state is easily
explained through the fact, tliat his material of Fistularians from the Indo-Pacific really
contained only the F. depressa Gthr. Quite naturally therefore he referred his young „villose"
specimen of 130 mm. length to a naked „7*". serrata"; now I refer the same specimen to the
species F. petimba not only on account of its rough skin but also because the head shows
the characteristics of this species. The splitting u|) of the old F. serrata into two species,
the one naked, the other rough, is due to GCntheh i16c, p. 68i; only the first he designated
with a new species-name, depressa, while he left the old name serrata for the latter, tlie rough
one, for which Jord.\n (& Gilberti later perhaps more correctly introduced as new name
petimba, originally used by LacépÈDE for specimens captured by Commerson in the Indo-
Pacific.

« p. 282 [16]. These structures were observed by Günther (16 a, p. 531), and earlier bv
Agassiz (1, T. 4, p. 278; comp. p. 338[72j).

« p. 282 [16]. The median scales in F. petimba were also observed by Günther („F. ser-
rata" 16 a, p. 535), and compared by him to the dorsal spines of Aulostoma: "They are evi-
dently rudiments of the spinous portion at least of the dorsal fin, which, in Aulostoma, is
more developed, the spines being free." It seems difficult to understand how the author
would be able to reconcile this hypothesis with the fact that F. petimba has scales or "spines"
of quite the same structure along the belly and on the upper and lower side of the tail.
Their presence on "the abdomen' G. himself has mentioned.

If p. 282 [16J. The ossicles of the lateral line have been noticed by several previous
authors iGONTHER a. o.).

11 p. 282 [16]. The number of vertebræ is differently given by different authors; thus
e.g. CuviER (9 b, T. 1, p. 231} has 56 abdominal, 33 caudal vertebræ, (Iünther (16 a, p. 529!
4 -h 49(33 in F. tabacaria; (p. 533) 47/34 ;Hüpp.\ 47 29 (Rosenthal * in F. serrata; Jordan and
EvERMANN ;21 a, ]). 756): 4 -I- 44 to 49 + 28 to 33. Probably the number varies individually
within narrow limits, with no value for the distinction of the species.

12 p. 284 [18]. Remarks about the vertebral column, or more or less incomplete descriptions,
are found in various authors. The modification of the anterior ])art has early been observed,
but as far as I am aware Cuvier was the first to settle its composition of four vertebræ
in the almost complete and correct descrijjtion of the column, given in the second edition
of his Leçons etc. (1835, 9 b, T. 1, p. 227;. Lacépkde ,31, T. 10, p. 95) and Rosenthal i47, p. 31)
regard the anchylosed part as one single vertebra, while Meckel (35, p. 232) has at all events
indicated a compound structure in the following words: "Bei Fistularia besteht gleichfalls
der erste, sehr längliche Wirbel aus mehrern, durch Fugen verbundenen Stücken", and
Cuvier & Valenciennes ,10, p. 359) speak of coalescence of vertebræ in this way: "Plusieurs
[poissons] ont aussi les corps d'une partie de leur vertèbres soudés ensemble; on en voit des
exemples dans les cyprins, les silures et les fistulaires, et de plus marqués encore dans un
grand nombre de chondroptérygiens. " Agassiz (1, T. 4, p. 276) uses rather indistinct terms:
"La colonne vertébrale offre cela de très-particulier, que toute sa partie antérieure ne présente

* GÛNTHKR has not observed tliat Kosknthai. counts tlie 4 anterior vertebræ as one; the number
thus ought to be quoted as 50/29.

338 72

qu'une masse continue sans articulation. Les vertèbres ne commencent à être distinctes que
près des ventrales. "

Figures of tlie wliole skeleton arc given by Rosenthal (47, Tab. 9, Fig. 8) CFist. serrata",
if F. petimha or depressa I am not able to decide) and Agassi/ (1, Atlas, Vol. 4, Tab. 35, Fig. 1)
(F. /a/)«co;7(/, wrongly on the plate designateil as Aulostoma chinensc); in both figures the system
of ossified tendons along the vertebræ is omitted. Separate figures of the anchylosed anterior
part are given by Brühl (6 a. Tab. 9, Fig. 38, 40; (i b. Tab. 10, Fig. 10, 11 ; in both works F. lalm-
caria') and Owen (38, p. 41, Fig. 35, F. tabacaria; copied by Goodrich 15, p. 412). A very detailed
and elaborated description of the anterior coalesced vertebræ is found in Klein (26 a, p. 327
—28); nevertheless K. declares that he was not able to find "real sutures" between the com-
ponent vertebræ, and therefore he feels not quite sure about their number, but supposes it
to be four. Brühl furthermore has figured other parts of the vertebral column (csp. in 6 b.
Tab. 10, F'igs. 9— 15, 17—23), but some of his figures are not quite correct le. g. 13. 19 and others).
He seems to be the only author, who figures anything of the ossified tendons, of which one
only is represented in 6 b. Tab. 10, Fig. 23; the text says: "r— r': an die spina angelegter, sehr
langer, knöchener Flossenstrahl." I suppose that Günther is speaking of these structures
when he states (16 a, p. 533): ". . . the interneurals long, horizontally situated, so that they form
together one continuous bony strip." Evidently G. has not observed the paired symmetrical
arrangement of the structures in question. Also Agassiz possibly has these bones in view
(and not only the nuchal plates?) when he writes (1, T. 4, p. 278): "Enfin, il y a de semblables
pièces allongées, sur la ligne médiane du dos, qui semblent rappeler la tendance qui règne
généralement chez les Aulostomes, à avoir une dorsale épineuse."" The "pièces semblables"
are evidently the spindle-shaped bones imbedded in the skin of Fist, tabacaria, forming the
strip along each ventral side peculiar just for this species and mentioned on p. 281 [15] of this
work; this will be seen from the words immediately preceding the above quotation: "En
avant des ventrales, et depuis leur insertion jusqu'au bout de la queue, on remarque en outre
une série de lames cornées, acérées, et qui paraissent avoir quelque analogie avec les écus-
sons abdominaux des Belones."

The 3 nuchal plates seem first to have been sjiecially noticed by Günther (16 a,
p. 532), who describes: "A narrow strip [of shields] along the median line of the back behind
the skull; they are, in fact, confinent neural spines, belonging to the anterior portion of the
vertebral column")." This interpretation I think niust now be given up. Later they are
described by Klein (26 a, p. 326' as one narrow plate, behind drawn out into a long point
"welches gespalten sich auf die Dornfortsätze der 3 vorderen abgesonderten Wirbel legt."

The large lateral bones, which are fastened to the epiotics, are well described by
Agassiz (1, p. 278) and still better by Günther (16 a, p. 532). In comparing them with the
similar structures in Muç/il which Günther (cfr. 1. c. p. 412) regards as " processes of the
paroccipital", he apparently does not consider them simply as ossified tendons. The same
comparison with Miigil is found in Dareste (11, p. 1089): "Les occipitaux externes présentent
de très-grand prolongements osseux, qui s'extendent dans la région dorsale et sont l'exagéra-
tion d'une disposition qui se rencontre chez les Mugiloides."

13 p. 284 [98]. While already Lacépède supposed the caudal filament to be a ray (31, T. 10,
p. 93: "Cet appendice .... ressemble entièrement par sa contexture aux rayons articulés des

■ In the work (i b Brühl believes lie is dealing witli Aulostoma chinense; the mistake I think is
due to the wrong labelling of a skeleton in the Paris Museum, probably the same which served Agassiz
for his figure, mentioned above, and wrongly designated as Aulostoma chinense on his plate; but while
Agassiz in his text has corrected the mistake Brühl lias not been aware of it.

" They are at all events figured on the fossil F. Koenigii |1, T.4, PI. 35, Fig. 5), and Ag. remarks
in the description of this species: "Au dessus de la colonne vertébrale on remarque quelques osselets
qui paraissent correspondre au pièces impaires du milieu du dos, que j'ai mentionnées en décrivant la
charpente solide du F. tabacaria."

73 339

nageoires, et présente des articulations entièrement analogues à celles de ces derniers")
Meckel curiously enough (35, p. 200) believed it to be a continuation of the vertebrae ("Bei
Fisliilarin fin(iet sich die merkwürdige Anordnung, dass sich die immer kleiner werdenden
Wirbel über die Schwanztlosse hinaus in einen langen, sehr dünnen Faden verwan<leln,
welcher nur in seinem Anfange in unvollkoniniene Wirbel abgetheilt erscheint"). Knek i28b,
p. 259 [2(S]) has partly seen the continuation of the lateral line on the caudal lilamenl: "I.etzterer
(der Scitencanal) setzt sich durch die Mitte der Caudale zwischen zwei fadig verlängerten
Strahlen weit hinaus fort."

The structure of the fin-rays generally is already mentioned by Agassiz (1, p. 278) in so
far as he says that they are "peu divisés et à peine articulés." Kner (28 b, p. 257 [26]) on the
other side says that in all the lins the rays are simple, unjointed and unbranched, and of a
similar compressed shape as those in the Lophobranchiata.'" He has evidently not examined
the ventrals carefully enough.

1^ p. 288 [221. The cranial skeleton of Fislularia has early and often been examined, but
a thorough, sufficiently illustrated, description has hitherto never been published, and very
many of the statements made by previous authors are incorrect. The figures of Rosenthal
(47, pi. 9, figs. 8—12) are rather small and imperfect, and the explanation (1. c. p. 30) is too
incomi)lete and defective to be of any use now.

In the last (0th) volume of his "System der vergl. Anatomie" (1833) Meckel has given
some scattered notes regarding the visceral (susjicnsory and branchian skeleton. P. 107—108
he describes and recognizes the 3 opercular bones and points out the presence of the pre-
operculum (cfr. also p. 113, 114); p. 122 he remarks that the hyoid ("vordere Zungenbeinäste")
is small, flat and low (p. 123), only composed of two pieces, the first (i. e. the stylohyal) and
second (i. e. epihyal) being absent, and the fourth (i. e. the two hypohyals combined) single
and very small, and that the whole is almost entirely made up of the third i.e. the cerato-
hyal), which is elongated and curved (p. 126); it carries 5 branchiostegal rays or rather "4,
because the ui)per is split into two branches, which form the first and second ray." P. 135
it is stated that the basibranchials (die "tiefe unpaare mittlere Schicht des Zungenbeins"')
are wanting, while a urohyal ("das oberflächliche mittlere Zungenbein") is present (repeated on
p. 142 ; ]). 148 is noticed that the glossohyal ("der vor der Vereinigung der vorderen Seiten-
äste liegende Knochen oder Knori)el") is very long; p. 152 that the branchial arches are small
and slender, and p. 154 that they are of a very simple structure: "Von einer Theilung des
langen, geraden Kiemenstückes in zwei Hälften findet sich keine Spur. Nur in den vorderen
Bogen Inidet sich ferner ein oberes, sehr kleines, nach vorn gewandtes, gleichfalls gerades
Stück, das keine Kiemen trägt und daher eben so gut oberer Schlundko])fknochen seyn kann."
Finally p. 161 and p. 162 is correctly stated that gill-rakers are completely absent.

Agassiz (1, p. 277) describes quite correctly those features, which may be seen without
sei)arating a mounted skeleton, and which might be of use in comi)aring with fossils. Worth
mentioning is that he describes the 3 opercular bones rightly. He has seen the long glosso-
hyal and counts 5 branchiostcgals, but besides he adds two more at the symi)hysis of the
hyoid; this mistake is due to the preparation, in which a strip of dried up skin is preserved;
the latter also accounts for the following mistake: "La membrane qui forme le tube buccal,
entre l'appareil hyoïde, les mâchoires et les pièces operculaires, est soutenue par de nom-
breuses fibres osseuses très-grèlcs."' In Cuvier's Leçons etc. (9 b, T. 2, p. 626) is found the
following: "Dans Vaiilostome chinois', le museau est large, mince et plat comme une épée à
deux tranchants. I^e mastoïdien û. e. the posttemijoral) donne en arrière une apophyse qui
dépasse beaucoup le condyle. Dans ces deux poissons [Fist, and Au/.], le basilaire, au lieu
d'une facette articulaire creuse, conique, comme nous en avons vu jusquà présent, donne

■ i. e. Fist, tabacaria, cfr. above p. 335 [69] note 5. I^erhaps the same wrong labelling, which
caused tlie designation of F. tabacaria as Aiilostoma cliinense on pi. 35 in Agassiz's work as well as
Hiii'Hi.'s mistake, is also the cause of the exchanging of the same names in CuviEn's Leçons.

1). K. II. Viilcnsk. Selsk. Slir., 7. liældif, n.nlinviilcnsli. o« m:illK-ni Al.l. VIM. .''.. 44

340 74

au contraire iiiio riu-clle convexe, et c|iii loinie un vérilable condyle semblable à celui des
reptiles."

In K(")STLIN's, from a modem view, somewhat curious work (30) observations about
cranial structures in the most dilferent llshes are scattered in a rather bewilderinji way;
anions» these also some remarks on Fislularia. On p. 'Ml he says: "Audi bei Fistularia und
Syngnathus scheinen sich die beiderseitigen Schcilelbeine hinter der schmalen Hinterhaupt-
schuppe ein wenig zu berühren. " What are here named iiarietals are evidently the ejiio-
tics; thus for Fistularia the observation is correct, but not for Syiujnatlms. The structure of
the ethmoidal region in F. seems quite obscure to K., as he p. 343 ascribes nasals to Fislu-
laria, but coalesced with the ethmoid "as in Trigla and Heterobranchus", and further on
]). 301 about the anlorbital bone: "Eine besondere Grösse erreicht die Platte bei einigen
Fischen, deren Nasenbeine oder deren Siebbeine ungewöhnlich entwickelt sind. So streckt
sie sich bei Fistularia an jedem Hände des Siebbeins sehr lang nach vorn aus: bei Syngnathus
und Lepidole])rus zieht sie sich, wie die angrenzenden Nasenbeine, sehr lang nach vorn aus."
Does K. mean the lateral parts of the mesethmoid? On p. 362 an arch of Infraorbitals is
ascribed to Fislularia. On p. 378 the suspensory apparatus for the mandible is mentioned
in terms rather difficult to understand, but to which the key is found on p. 375, where K.
comiKires his terminology with that of CuvieH: "ländlich ist von den Acanthopterygiern noch
Fistularia zu nennen, wo die einzeln Stücke der Qua(h-atbcingrupi)e sich so gegen einander
verschieben, dass das untere Stück (i. e. the quadratuni) viel mehr nach vorn liegt, als das
obere (i. e. the hyoniandibular); der gewöhnliche Zusammenhang der Stücke wird aber darum
nicht aufgehoben. Sowohl das untere (o: quadratuni) als das vordere Stück i i. e. the nieta-
pterygoid sind hier in die Länge gezogen; dieses bildet den unteren Rand der Augenhöhle
und articulirt mit dem vordem Stirnbein; das untere Stück (o: quadratuni) gränzt theils an
das Flügelbein (i- e. entopterygoidi theils an das Siebbein (which latter statement is wrong!),
und die ("iclenkfläche ist mit ihm ganz nach vorn gerückt; das obere Stück {.r. the hyonian-
dibular) ist sehr klein und verkümmert." As will be seen on closer examination, K. regards
the symplectic and the melapterygoid as one piece, not to mention the smaller defects. He
adds: "Unter den übrigen Fischen kommt fast dieselbe Anordnung bei Syngnathus vor",
which to a certain degree may be true!

BiiüHL (6 a. Tab. 9, Fig. 38) has ligured the skull, but his figure does not give details of
any importance. The lettering shows only some of the most conspicuous jiarts, such as
Agassiz had already mentioned. Of the suspensorial parts and adnexa, for example, he
evidently has only recognized the preoperculum (Fop) and quadrate (u. Gb., i. e. "unteres Ge-
lenkbein"), while the whole palato-pterygial part is marked: o. St and Gb"? (i. e. "oberes Stück"
and „Gelenkbein'"?; that is to say B. was not able to make out its composition. BrChi.'s
text contains but very few observations, dispersed in a similar way to those of Köstlin.
P. 88, speaking of the different ways in which "Schnabelbildungen" may arise in fishes, he
states that one way the fourth) may be "Durch einen sehr gestreckten Riechbeinkörper mit
Hülfe alinlicher Haupt- und vorderer Stirnbeine ('.') bei Fistularia, Aulostoma. Dass Zwischen-
und Oberkiefer hier keinen Antheil an der verlängerten Kopfbildung haben, zeigt die eben
cit. Figur (Tab. i), Fig. 38), wo die genannten Knochen (ibid.: Z. K. und O. K. kleine absteigende
Knochenstiele darstellen." On p. 96 he mentions Polyptems, Synbranchus, Tetraodon and
Fistularia as examples of fishes, where the pterygo-palatine arch has given up its articulation
with the skull and acquired a connection by means of suture. P. Ill he observes that "Der
Zungenknochen (i. e. the glossohyal) ist sehr lang bei Aulostoma chinense (after Rathke),
Fistul. tabacaria and Syngnathus." On p. 123, Note 4, he states against Rathke (who (44, p. 77)
ascribes only one opercular bone to Fistularia and several other genera) that his figures
show for Fislul. as for several other genera that tlic opercidar apparatus is "mehr weniger
normal gebaut d. i. aus 4, 3 und wenigstens 2 Stücken bestehend." The lettering of his F'ig. 38
on PI. 9 shows that he only recognized 2 in Fistularia, and that he regarded the interoper-
culuni as the suboperculum, while the real suboperculum is omitted.

75 341

By far the most complete and correct account of the skull is that of Güntheii (16 a,
p. 532). After having described the f^eneral form and the frontals he says: "The greater part
of the upper surface of the snout is formed by the ethmoid, whilst the vomer occupies the
anterior fourth or fifth. The |)ræfrontal is situated in front of the orbit, elongate and tri-
angular. TluMC is a deep and long groove on the side of the snout for tlie muscles of the
jaws; its bottom is entirely ossifietl, and formed by the tym|)anic (the quadratei, preoperculum,
entopterygoid, pre- and niesotympanic i,= metajiterygoid and syniplectic), these bones being
exceedingly long. The entopterygoid (= entopterygoid) and pretynipanic (= metapterygoid)
are situated immediately below the ethmoid, and provided with a crenulated ridge which is
externally visible. The bones which in other fishes constitute the bottom of the tym|)anic
cavity below the orbit, are carried forwards before the orbit in FisliiUiria: the epityuipanic
(= hyomandibular; appears to be absent." And later is added: "Turbinai bone (= nasal i very
small; infraorbitals none.'

On page 530-31 the 3 opercular bones are correctly described, as well as the branclii-
ostegals, but in "F. serrata" G. (p. 534) incorrectly gives the numbers as 6. The absence of
gill-rakers is noted as well as the "series of three elongate patches of (villiform) teeth on
each side of the roof of the pharynx" and the long series of teeth on the lower pharyngeals;
features which already L.\céi>i:de (31, p. 02) had jiointed out (but L. regarded the operculum
as compo.sed of only one piece). "The glossohyal", Günther finally adds, "is exceedingly
long, half as long as the tube."

Thus, with the exception of the statements, that the hyomandibular ("epitympanic") is
absent and a nasal ("turbinai") present, Günthers above-quoted description proves to be
quite correct; but except few remarks on the frontals he does not give any information what-
ever about the bones composing the brain-case. Ten years later D.\reste (11, p. 1089) gave
the following account, which seems inferior to that of Günther, and contains some errors
emphasized by me below: "Le type des Fistulaires est caractérisé tout dabord par l'allongement
de la région de la tête qui précède la cavité crânienne: les frontaux jirincipaux, très-allongés et
soudés entre eux, sont précédés par un ethmoïde excessivement long, lequel est lui-même
précédé par un vomer également assez long. Cet allongement des os antérieurs du crâne
s accompagne d'un allongement considérable de l'aile temporale; donc les trois os principaux,
temporal = hyomandibular , tympanique = metapterygoidi et jugal (=quadrate), sont sou-
dés au s])hénoide dans toute leur étendue. Au contraire, les mâchoires et l'aile palatine
sont fort petites. L'aile palatine s'unit au vomer non-seulement par le palatin, mais aussi
Ijar le ptérygoîdien interne. Les frontaux antérieurs sont très-écartés des palatins. La boîte
crânienne, très petite, ne porte pas de véritable crête. Les frontaux principaux s'unissent
aux mastoïdiens (=pterotics) et aux frontaux postérieurs. Les occipitaux externes (= epiotics)
l)résentent de très-grands iirolongement s osseux, qui s'étendent dans la région dorsale et
sont 1 exagération d'une disposition qui se rencontre chez les Mugilo'ides. '

Thus Üareste has not observed anything about the most remarkable points in the
composition of the brain-case either: the relation of the pterotics, and of the epiotics to their
neighbours and the absence of parietals etc.

The first author to analyse in details the skull of Fistularia is Klein.

Klein (26 b and c) has given most elaborate and painstaking descriptions of the single
bones composing the skull (not of the suspensorial nor the branchial skeletal parts\ descrip-
tions which hardly anybody will be able to understand without having the necessary prepa-
rations in his hands; and even so it is hard work to follow the author. 1 can therefore well
understand tlial Swinnerton (56 a, p. .575 has given up the "attempt to exi)lain the why and
the wherefore of Klein s tangle in describing the auditory region. " Nevertheless, the descrip-
tions arc generally very correct, but the interpretations are often more or less defii-ient.
Through careful study of Kl.'s work it will be evident, that — overlooking the dividing
suture - he regards the prootic and the i)ostfrontal as one piece, which together with the
ptcrotic he designates "ala temporalis"; as "ala orbitalis" he considers the alisi)henoid, which
he quite correctly describes with all niinutia'. The i)osltcnq)oral is regarded as "squama

44*

IQ 342

temporalis", or pterotic, in spite of tlie fact, that lie has rightly observed that the "hinder
part" of his "ala temporalis" contains Ihe exterior semicircular auditory canal, as the i)terotic
does in other fishes, and that his "sciuaiiia temiioralis" here docs not take any share in the
formation of the wall of the brain cavity, as the pterotic normally does. The coalesced
epiotics together with the supraoccipital are described as "occipitale superius"; but he has,
however, observed (b, p. 144) that: "Die in den Gehôrkapseln sich entwickelnden occipital,
extern., epiotica, sind mit der untern Fläche des occipital, superius verwachsen", which fact
he later repeats (c, p. 18() and especially p. 207). In a parenthesis on p. 142 he states: "parietal,
lassen sich nicht als abgesonderte Platten darstellen", and later, on j). 246 he declares, that he
has not been able to find parietals in several fishes, among others (kislerosteus (where parie-
tals are present!) and Fislnlaria; "sie sind entweder als völlig mit den frontalia verwachsen,
oder überhaupt fehlend zu betrachten." He rightly describes the parasphenoidal fossa for
the eye-muscles and points out that there is no proper eye-muscle canal; further the pre-
frontals (b, p. 188) (only his remark about the attachment of the "Infraorbitalbogen" is wrong,
in as much infraorbitals are totally wanting!). In the snout region (b, p. 221— 22) he commits
a mistake in regarding the whole dorsally visible i)art as one bone, the mesethmoid, his
"septum narium"; his "vomer" is only the ventrally projecting, keclshaped i)art of the real
vomer (the part carrying teeth). Finally (b, p. 251i he mentions Fisliilaria among other fishes
which lack nasalia. It is worth pointing out that Klein is the only earlier author — as far
as I have seen — who has examined the inner aspect of the brain-case; the descriptions of
the inner structures, which — it may be said by the way — are by no means easy to make out,
are dis])ersed throughout his work; a good deal is to be found in (c) on page 206—07. Upon
the whole Kl.'s account is very scattered; the principal descriptions of the posterior part of
the skull will be found in (a, p. 325) b, |)p. 141-144; of the anterior part 188-89; p. 221-222;
several details are found in c, p. 140, 186, 206 etc.

Jordan and Evermann state 21 a, p. 755) tliat tlie long tubiform snout in Fislnlaria is
"formed by the symplectic, proethmoid (=? prefrontal), metapterygoid, mesopterygoid (= ento-
pterygoid), quadrate, ])alatines, vomer, and mesethmoid." "Post-temporal coossified with the
cranium. Branchiostcgals 5 to 7." "(lill-rakers obsolete. Basibranchial elements wanting."
And on j). 756 they add a tabular formula of the branchial skeleton after Mr. Hutteh, which
is correct, save on two points: 1) a first basibranchial is present, and 2) the 3 pharyngo-
branchials are to be referred to the second, third and fourth arch, not to the first, second
and third. Already in 1871 Cope (8, p. 437), calling attention to the structure of the branchial
skeleton in the fishes, for which he founded his group Htmibranchii, ascribed to Fislnlaria
"three osseous anterior superior branchihyals (= epibranchials) and three superior pha-
ryngeals, directed forwards."

Siebenrock (53, PI. 5, Fig. 17) figures the brain-case of '/<". scrrata", seen from above;
the figure is good in most respects but defective on one essential point: the sutures lietween
the supraoccipital and the epiotics are omitted, because S. regards the supraoccipital ^ the
two epiotics as one bone, which he calls "Supraoccipitale" (so). Describing on p. 131 the
connections of the posttemporal (^.Suprascapulare", s. sc.) he says: "Die sonst übliche Ver-
bindungsweise mit dem Paroccipitale (= epiotic) kann hier nicht stattlinden, weil dieser
Knochen gänzlich fehlt. Eine weitere Merkwürdigkeit bilden die Parietalia, die zu einer
unpaaren Platte vereinigt sind und vom Supraocciiiitale bei F. lahacaria Linné nahezu, bei
F. scrrala Bloch aber gänzlich bedeckt werden. Daher reichen die F'rontalia (fr.) so weit
nach rückwärts, dass sie nach Wegnahme der Sujjrascapularia f= posttemi)orals) theilweise
den Hinterrand des Schädels begrenzen helfen." What S. liere regards as the coalesced
parictals is simply the supraoccipital (shown in my figure 6 on PI. I as so), and there is no
difference between the species; in my specimens of "F. serrala" (i. e. petimba), the narrow
supraoccipital is quite as visible as in F. tabacaria.

Swinnerton (56 a, p. 575 f. f.) compares the skulls of (iasterosteiis . Syiuiiiathus and
Fislnlaria, which he believes all to be more or less related to each other and therefore has
put together in one group, his Thoraroslci. In tpioting S. below, I emphasize the niistak'es

;{:);{ 77

res»:ir(linf> Fixtiilnria. On p. 575 S W. writes: ". . . all are alike in the absence ol' an opistliotic*
and basis])henoi(l, the even upper surface, the sculpturing; of the roolinf^ bones, the simplicity
of the post-temporal, the essential shape of the ethmoid and the great size of the
supra-occipital, which separates the parietals widely, and appears to separate
the hinder portion of the frontals. In (iasterosteus the exoccipital extends forwards between
tlie i)tcrotics and basioccipital to tlie ])ro-otic. In the others the pterotic extends ventrally
to the basioccipital, and also part of the way into the larj^e meml)ranous space be-
tween this and the pro-otic, thus separating the exoccipital widely and the basiocci-
pital partially, from the pro-otic .... In the sphenoidal region of Fistularia the pro-otic
completely encloses the foramen for the exit of part of the fifth nerve, and forms the hinder
boundary of the other exit. The large alisphenoid forms the front boundary of the rest.
No eye-muscle canal is present, consequently the parasphenoid lies Hat against the lloor of
the cranium. Laterally it sends out processes up to the sp h eno tic i^ postfrontal;
in Fist, the process is united to the prootic and does not at all reach the postfrontal)."
P. 570: in the anterior portion of the cranium, Fistularia and Syngnathus present the same
features as those given above for Gasterosteus, but it is greatly elongated, and almost com-
])lelely ossified. In the first this region is proportionally much wider, because the narrow
pre-ethmoid is sujiplemen ted laterally by the nasals." "In the visceral skeleton
all are alike in the tendency towards weakening of the branchial ajiparatus", in the great
forward slant of the hyomandibular"", in the great elongation of the synii)lectic, in the
great reduction or comijlete suppression of the metap terygoid cartilage"", in
the absence of an ectopterygoid"*", and in the possession of the acrartete condition"!
"In Fistularia the reduction of the branchial skeleton has advanced much further than in
Syngnathus, for all the basib ran chi als and the fourth epibranchial are absent. The
pharyngobranchials of the second to fourth arches are present, but, unlike those of Gastero-
steus, the first two are fused; the tiiird is free, and all are rod-like, and lie one
behind the other' 1'. 577: "In the hyoid arch the basihyal (= glossohyal) though present
during dcvelojjmenl , is ajjsent in the adult Syngnathus ft, but attains a great lengtii in
Fistularia." "Of the bones immediately concerned in the gill-cover and branchiostegal mem-
brane, the operculum alone survives in Syngnathus ftt, but are all present, together with five
l)ranchiostegaI rays, in the Fistularia," P. 578: "In Fistularia the inner lamina of the
suborbital bone alone remains, the quadrate is much larger ])osteriorly, and the ptery-
goid bone bears a close resemblance to that of Gasterosteus. Between the hinder process
of the last named bone and the suborbital is the undoubted metapterygoid, which thus
occupies a similar position to, but is much smaller than, a in Sy ngnat h us." fftf
What SwiNNERTON here calls the suborbital must be the sym|)lcctic in Fistularia; of sub-

' In Gasterosteus an opisthotic is present !

•" In Gasterosteus I cannot admit any "weakening" of this apparatus.

*■■ In Gasterosteus, Spinacliia, etc. the hyomandibular is not more sloping forwards tlian in
very man3' other fishes (nor in Syngnatlius].

"" In Gasterosteus, Spinacliia, Eucalia , Apeltcs etc. an ossified metapterygoid is present (over-
looked by SwiNNEKTON In his monograph!); in Syngnatlius only (as in the other Lophobranchiates) it
is absent.

..... -j-jjg ectopterygoid is present in Syngnathus (and Lophobranchiates general!}')-

f The acrartete condition is defined by Swinnertox as the condition, in which the attachment
of the palatine cartilage or its derivatives is confined solely to the preethmoid cornua. Now, in Fist.
the palatine is attached to the vomer alone.

ff It is present in all adult Syngnathids.

fff In Syngnatlius and all the Lophobranchiates all ii opercular bones are present, and 1 or 2
branchiostegals.

ffff a in Syngnathus is the anterior infraorbital bone; comp, the reproduction of Swinneutox's
figure .')0, p. 356 [90| with my fig. i on PI. V, and what is said on p. 356 [90] of this paper.

344 78

Orbitals this iicnus lias no trace whatever. From the above quotations it will ai)|)car that
GCnther, publishing in 1861, had by far a more correct apprehension than Swinnerton in
1902, of the cranial structures in Fistiilaria.

In his admirable jjapcr on the shoulder-i^irdle in the Hemibranchiates Starks (55, p. 624)
correctly jxjinls out the absence of opisthotics and parictals and the position of the jiterotic,
the form of the occipital condyle, the i)resence of the long ossihed lateral nuchal tendons
as cranial features common to both Fisliilarid and Aniosloma. But in adding: "basisphenoid
bridging anterior edges of prootics above rectus muscles of eye making basis cranii appear
double, but no myodome in continuation", he makes a mistake: there is no basiphenoid in
the described position, the bridge is formed by the prootic itself, in Fistiilaria together with
the alis]5hcn()id - as already known to Klein. As osteological characters tlistinguishing /•".
from Aniosloma S. mentions, that the jjalatines are free from the cranium, tlic posttcmporal
united suturally to the latter, and that the transverse processes are normal. The hitler point
is less correct, in so far that the double transverse iirocesses are also found in I'lsliihiiia,
the ])osterior one is only very small compared with the corresponding process in Aiilostoma.

15 p. 289 [23]. While LacÉpÈde (31, p. 92) only observed, that the anterior part of the
body in Fisliilaria was enclosed in a kind of armour, consisting of 6 long bony plates, hidden
below the skin, Agassiz (1, p. 278) had a more complete notion of these elements and referred
the large ventral plates to the coracoid ("humérus"), the lateral to the postclavicle i."l os sty-
loi(le'); besides he remarks that the pterygials ("os carpiens" are well developed.

Rosenthal (47, pi. 9, Text p. 31) designates the shoulder- girdle as "Gûrtel" (without
entering into its composition), the i)ostclavicle as "Seitenschuppen", the coracoidal plates as
"Vordere Bauchschuppen, die vom Winkel des Gürtels ent.stehn", the ossified nuchal tendons
as "Lange Hückenschuppen, die vom Hinterhaupt abgehn."

HhChi, (() a, PI. 12, Fig. 36) gives a rathei- i)Oor and incorrect ligure on whicii sc (i.e.
"scainiia" is the posttemporal; the suprascapular is omitted; the lateral (dermal) part of the
clavicle is lettered V. A. 1 (i. e, "Vorderarm, erstes Stück" = scajjula in the i)resent pa|)er);
the real scapula and three pterygials are lettered H.W. (i.e. "Handwur/el '), and the coracoid
V. A. 2 (i.e. "Vorderarm, zweites Stück); the postclavicle and the coracoidal plates are marked
"■.' T" and "-.'2'", jjrobably indicating that they may be regarded as .separate parts belonging
to the two "Vorderarm-Stücke". In the text nothirtg is found about these questions; upon
the whole are only found two statements, the one wrong (p. 174), viz. that Fisl. has only one
"Schulterblatttheil" (the posttemporal), the other (p. 176) that it has two "Ober- und Vorderarm-
knochen. '

Günther (16 a, p. 532) apparently regards the posttemijoral as part of the skull; "The
process on which the humeral arch is suspended is very long, reaching as far backwards as
the operculum; suprascapula and scapula (= supraclavicle) short, simple; the humerus (i. e.
the clavicle! emits a process backwards for the coracoid (i. e. the postclavicle), another down-
wards for the radius and ulna (i. e. scapula and coracoid), and hnally a third for its symphysis.
There are three bones i)articipating in the symphyseal junction of the humeral arcli: the
urohyal, which is very elongate, the humeral and the pubic bones. Radius and ulna reduced
to a single subcircular bone; there are four narrow, longish carpal bones (i.e. pterygials)."
(I suppose that part of the scapula is looked upon as one of these "carpal bones ', the small
uppermost ])terygial having been overlooked; otherwise the statement, that there is only one
subcircular bone rejjresenting the scapula and coracoid, is unintelligible). Farther down he
describes the postclavicle ("coracoid") as composed of two bones; and the ventral shields
or "pubic bones'. Curiously enough G. has not seen that the ventrals are provided with
typical "i)ubic bones"; and in the diagnosis of the family Fistiilui-idœ ip. 529) he expressly
states, that the ventrals "are separate from the pubic bones, which remain attached to the
humeral arch."

A very lengthy and circumstantial descriiition of the shoulder-girdle (and the urohyal) is

79 345

!4ivcn by Klein (26 a, p. 326—27); but, curiously enough, he does not give any morphological
interpretation of the constituents described in so many words; only the ventral coracoidal
plates he designates, like Günther, as "Heckenknochen. '

Cope i8, p. 457) regarded the coracoidal jilates as interclavicles, and this inter))retation
later has been generally accepted, until Starks (p. 6251 declared that these bones were not
separated from the coracoids. Thus we find these elements called interclavicles in the
description of .Ioudan and Evehmann (21 a, p. 756, 757\ which otherwise in the main follows
Günther but uses other names; they only speak of 3 pectoral ossicles (i. e. pterygials).

In Siebenrocks paper (53, p. 131) only the posttemporal and its connection with the
cranial bones are described; S. correctly places Fist, among the fishes, which possess all
three elements in the clavicular arch: posttemporal, supraclavicle and clavicle.

Starks (55. p. 625, 630) describes in detail the ventral coracoidal plate and the shoulder-
girdle, giving a very good figure. The few points, in which I have anything to add. will be
found on pag. 289 [23] of my pa])er; they are in the main the structure of the scapula and
the connection between the coracoid plates from the opposite sides in the ventral median
line, which latter point seems not to have been observed by Starks.

Recently Swinnerton (56 b, p. 379) has raised the question about a probable separate
existence of the ventral coracoidal [ilates as interclavicles in the grouj) of fishes, comprising
Fislnlaria. As his own contribution to the question only regards Gasterüsiciis, which in my
opinion does not at all belong to this grou|), 1 shall later come back to it in treating of this
genus. Only I may just state here, that the considerations set forth by Starks have in my
opinion lost nothing in validity through SwiNNERTON's observation.

Iß p. 292 (26]. That there are four gills, a well developed pseudobranchia and a
slit behind the fourth gill-arch has been seen by i)revious authors, but some, Meckel
f i. (p. 18) deny the presence of a pseudo-branch; already LacÉpède mentions the i)resence
of the pseudobranchia here as well in Aalostonia ,'"le rudiment dune cinquième branchie");
L. also says that Commerson has found the stomach, in the specimens dissected by hiuL very
long, and filled with small fishes.

Kneu (28 b, p. 29 [260]), after having made the following statements: "die Rechenzähne
sind äusserst kurz und spitz ;they are really wanting ; Schhindzähne konnte ich nicht wahr-
nehmen", adds: "Der Darm macht keine Windungen (im lang gestreckten Magen fand sich
ein Fischchen vor\ die dünnwandige Schwimmblase reicht nur bis zu den grossen queren
Fortsätzen der Bauchwirbel." {Fistularia immaciilala = F. serrata autt.;,

Günther (16 a, p. 535) gives the following information about the visceral anatomy of
Fistularia rserrata"): "The greater portion of the case formed by the bony shields behind
the head is filled by the air-bladder, the membrane of which is thin, coating the interior
surface of the upper and lateral shields, and firmly attached posteriorly to the muscular
mass which commences behind those shields. X ])ortion of the stomach and liver also are
enclosed in that anterior portion of the abdominal cavity. The stomach is elongate, sub-
cylindrical, and passes gradually into the intestine, which is short and straight to the vent.
I observe only one short pyloric appendage, enveloped by a portion of the pancreas, which
is situated along the whole posterior side of the stomach and encircles its pyloric ])ortion.
The spleen is elongate, ovate. The abdominal cavity is extremely narrow from the |)oint
where the muscular mass of the vertebral column commences. The kidneys are thick and
very long, extending along the whole abdominal cavity upwards to the air-bladder. '

The kidneys have been described by Hyrtl 20 b, p. 70) in "Fist, serrula." He also states
that a urinary bladder is absent. But some images before in the same work, p. 38, he says:
"Eine sehr unansehnliche Andeutung einer Harnblase als spindelförmige Erweiterung des ein-
fach gewordenen Harnleiters habe ich an . . . Fistittaria serrata . . . wahrgenommen. ' I have
not been able to see the least trace of a bladder.

The genital organs have been coi iocll\ (k'scril)cd by IlYUTL (20 a, p. 406) in F. sernila.

346 80

The olfactory organ of Fisliilaria has heen described l)y BURNE (7, p. 633). In the accom-
panying figure LAC ('Macrymal scute") is the ])refronlal. N (supposed to be the nasal) part of
the etiinioid.

Syngnathidæ.

17 p. 303 [37]. DuNCKERs description U 3, p. 21— 22) of the two anterior body rings is
dilTerent from that given by me. As upper parts of D.'s foremost ring, his "Schulterring",
are regarded the superior lateral scutes (si in my lig. 2 on PI. Ill) which I refer to the second
ring, that behind the pectoral, to which they undoubtedly belong. As lateral parts of the
"shoulder-ring" 1). further counts two "plates" on each side, one in front of the pectoral fin,
the "Skapularschild", one behind, the "Axillarschild"; the first is the dermal part of the cla-
vicle -r the "coverjjlate" (PI. Ill, fig. 2 c, the "Axillarschild" is my median lateral plate
(PI. Ill, fig. 2 ml) of the second ring (the first ring of typical composition). Finally, as inferior
parts of the "Schulterring" are regarded two plates on each side, my "jugular i)late" (PI. Ill,
fig. 2 j), which he termes "Infrascapulare ', and my inferior lateral plate of the second ring
(fig. 2 il). Thus the ditlerence really consists in the facts: 1) that D. regards my first and
second rings as only one, the "Schulterring"; 2) that he has apparently not observed that the
clavicular dermal i)art and the "cover-plate" are two separate structures.

18 p. 3(X; [40j. Regarding the structure of the vertebral column, which is examined
without great dil'ficulty, several features have earlier been noticed, and more or less correct
information will be found scattered through the literature. While the peculiar arrangement
of the interspinous bones for the dorsal fin has been very early noticed and later has been
mentioned by several authors, as also the imnmvablc connection between the shoulder-girdle
and the two anterior vertebræ, the fact that the three anterior vertebræ besides are immo-
bile, because their neural arches are suturally united, seems never to have been observed
before.

Schneider in Petri Artedi Synonymia Pisciuni etc. 1789 (49) p. 338— 39 and Tab. II,
figs. 20—21 has given some primitive and rough, not quite correct, representations of trans-
verse sections of Stjiuj nathus lijphle (or acus) and (fig. 22) a small part of the skeleton at the
region of the dorsal fin, seen from the side. The latter figure is extremely incorrect but —
as far as I know — hitherto the only existing, representing the peculiar groups of the parts
supporting the fin-rays; they are here called: "Processus spinosi in radios 4—6 difl'usi".
Thus the fact that interspinous bones are condjincd with the spinous processes has escaped
attention.

Meckel (35) p. 202 remarks that the vertebræ in Stjiiuiuilliiis are elongated, p. 203 that
articular processes are wanting or at least "höchst unmerklich"; p. 204 that the spinous pro-
cesses are split: "Ihre Schenkel bestehen aus fünf bis sechs zarten, dünnen Stäbchen, die
fast senkrecht in die Höhe steigen und sich an den meisten zu einem einfachen, mittlem,
langen, aber nie<lrigen Blatte vereinigen, das aber unter der Hückenflosse theils bedeutend
höher wird, theils sich von vorn nach hinten in drei, vier bis fünf in dieser Richtung aus
einander weichende Strahlen spaltet, welche die Flossenstrahlen tragen." Thus, M. has over-
looked the presence of interspinous bones ("Nebendornen ' Meckel). On p. 244 he adds that
ribs are wanting, a fact also mentioned by Cuvier and Valenciennes (10, p. 296).

Kröyer (29, p. 685) describes the vertebral column in Siphoiiostoma typhle in tiic follow-
ing way: "The vertebral column consists of 55 vertebræ, proportionately large and strongly
built, esi)ecially the foremost, lying over the abdominal cavity; these are moreover for the
greater part provided with strongly develoi)ed transverse processes. On the other hand the
abdominal vertebra- almost completely want spinous processes; the latter, however, are found
on the nine or ten anterior caudal vertebræ, to which the dorsal fin is attached, and are
very conspicuous and of peculiar shape, each of them being split into three or four, with
the points free, projecting, rays; thus this part of the column being formed like a finely

81 , 347

serrated saw. Ribs could not be observed." Regarding Sungnathiis aciis Kr. says (p. 701):
"The vertebral column consists of 66 vertebræ', the 22 of which are situated over the abdom-
inal cavity, the remaining 44 may be regarded as caudals. Thus the vertebræ in number
agree with the (transverse) row\s of scutes; they are proportionately large and strong. In all
the abdominal vertebrae the transverse processes are strongly developed in length, while
the spinous processes may be said almost to be absent, the neural canal generally appear-
ing in the shape of a simple roof with sharp crest. On the two last abdominal vertebræ,
however, and on the eight anterior caudals, i e. on the vertebræ carrying the dorsal fin,
are found, quite as in the preceding species {S. lyphle), strongly developed spinous processes
of peculiar shape, each formed by four divergent rays (only exceptionally five or three).
The interspinous bones, attached to these rays, are of an extreme slenderness. The
transverse processes of the vertebræ decrease in length with the beginning of the dorsal fin,
and disa])pear, almost completely vanishing, at its end. The transverse processes of the first
vertebræ in the pipe-fishes are of peculiar form: large, flat, blade- or wing-shaped, behind
strongly elongated (quite to the transverse processes of the next vertebra), and pointed like
a dagger. The inferior spinous processes begin to appear on the first caudal, but they
are always very small, and the canal, which they form for the blood-vessels, is very incom-
plete, because they only take up a small part of the length of the vertebræ, thus large
interspaces being left between them. On the other hand the lower surface of the caudals is
hollowed out into a rather deep furrow." In a similar way Kr. describes the column at
length in Xerophis æquoreiis. Here he finds 82 vertebræ, about 30 belonging to the abdominals;
he points out the difference from the preceding in the shape of the transverse processes.
Regarding the vertebræ, supporting the dorsal fin, he says; "In the vertebræ, lying under the
dorsal fin :24th to 35th, both included, or the eight last abdominal and a pair of the anterior
caudal vertebræ the spinous processes divide each into three to four large spines, supporting
the same number of strong interspinous bones." About the last caudal vertebræ, carrying
the rudimentary caudal fin, is said that it appears to have no plate-shaped enlargement at
its end.

Kner (28 a, p. 57—58) in his description of the muscles of the dorsal fin and the action
of the latter as a locomotory apparatus, mentions that in Syngnathus "die langen Flossen-
träger am Skelete in fächerartig auslaufende Bündel gestellt sind, und zwar sitzen bei
Syngn. riibescens acht solche Bündel, deren jedes aus 3—5 Flossenträgern besteht, auf eben
so vielen Wirbeln auf .... Bei Hipimcamptis sind dagegen die langen Flossenträger fast
parallel, nur die vorderen und hinteren etwas divergirend und die Flosse sitzt wenigstens
bei Hipp, giiltiilaliis: bloss auf drei Wirbeln auf, deren obere Schenkelbögen statt einfache
Dornfortsätze zu bilden, sich sogleich in drei kurze strahlig auslaufende Knochenfasern
zertheilen, auf welche die Flossenträger sodann aufsitzen." Kners statements are repeated
by Di'MÉRiL (12 a, p. 140, b, p. 475) without any further additions of his own; only p. 142, p. 476
he mentions as a character of these fishes, the absence of ribs. Cope (8 p. 457) remarks:
"Anterior vertebræ modified, the diapophyses much expanded.' Moreai' ^36, p. 29): "Les ver-
tèbres correspondent aux anneaux du corps et sont par conséquent en nombre égal; elles
sont relativement développées, grosses et longues avec très grandes apophyses. Les apophyses
épineuses sont généralement larges, elles présentent au niveau de la dorsale une disposition
singulière, elles se divisent en tiges plus ou moins nombreuses qui sont en rapport avec
autant d'interépineux." p. 30 the latter point is repeated with the addition, that "ces tiges
sont tantôt presque droites, parallèles Hippocampes, tantôt divergentes comme les branches
d'un éventail Syngnathes). Les intercpineux ont leur extrémité supérieure très-développée."

Ryder 48, p. 197 and PI. XYIL; observed in the "larvæ " of Hippocampus the distal
segment of the interspinous bones as a separate cartilage, articulated to the still cartilaginous
proximal part. "In adult specimens, the interspinous basalia which are at this young stage

' In CrviERs's Leçons etc. I, p. 232 the same number is given for Siinç/n. actis: for Hippocampus
15 -f 46 = 61.

I). K. n.Vldensk.Selsk. Skr.. 7. Række, nalurvldcnsk. og mathem. Afd. VIII. ö. 45

348 82

nearly in contact with the notochord by their proximal ends, are pushed farther out and
become apposed upon and interposed between the spinous dorsal radii springing directly
t'roni three vertebræ. "

Mc. Mlkiuch describes and figures (3-1, p. ()48— 49, and PI. XLII, lig. 2) the developing inter-
spinous bones in the larval Syngnatliiis [XTkianiis as cartilaginous rays, resting directly on
the membrane surrounding the spinal cord ": in later stages 1. c. fig. 6) they are said to be
united distally by a longitudinal bar, resting on which are cartilaginous nodules (i. e. the
distal interspinous segment of the adult), each supporting a fin-ray. The urostylic cartilages
for the, at first heterocercal, tail-fin are large and may be compared to the interspinous rays
of the dorsal tin. The anal fin (.the interspinous rays of which are not mentioned or figured)
is, wrongly, stated to atrophy in the adult.

\A\AJV.W)V.r, (32, p. 449) gives the number of vertebra- in Siphoitosioma lyphtc as 52—05.
of which the anterior 17—18 are abdominal. "The two first are modified and longer than the
remaining, strongly coalesced, the bonier between their neural arches having disappeared,
and serving as attachment for the shoulder-girdle. To this end the transverse processes of
the first vertebra are very much expanded, giving strong and immovable attachment to the
upper ends of the clavicles. Also the transverse processes of the second are somewhat
expanded, and their ends are attached to the clavicles, where the latter are bent. Otherwise
the vertebræ in general have transverse processes, to the end of which the plate-rings are
fastened. These processes are longest on the abdominal vertebræ and generally truncated.
The spinous processes are low, laterally compressed and plate-sha])ed, only little or not at
all separated, and show a series of several rods -connected by thin lamellæ. The anterior
caudal vertebræ, which support the dorsal fin, have the spinous processes somewhat more
elevated, and with 3—4 free points, to which the interspinous bones of this fin are attached.
Ribs are wanting."

Smitt 54), who has so admirably interpreted the suspensory parts of the head-skeleton
which are by no means so easy to make out as the vertebræ, only says regarding the latter
(p. 666i, that they are but slightly ossified, elongated, "the iirocesses straight and of uniform
breadth or slightly broader at the top; but in the vertebræ above which the dorsal fin is
attached, the upper spinous processes are divided sagitally (in the longitudinal direction of
the body) into three or four divergent branches. Distinct hæmal arches appear only at the
beginning of the caudal region, where a few may be found." Thus it does not seem clear,
if Smitt has observed the interspinous bones or not.

Biuu(;i-: v5, p. 578) describes at length the 34 interspinous bones in Siphonostonui tijphlc
and mentions briefiy those of Hippocampus yiillnlalu.s. He points out their bisegmental
structure, the distal segment being rejjresented by a cartilaginous nodule, and says that in
Siphonosloma they exhibit "a slight tendency to become arranged in groups of four each.
In each group the segments converge slightly towards their proximal ends, where they are
firmly attached to the summit of the neural arch of a subjacent vertebra. Distally the seg-
ments diverge slightly and their dorsal extremities expanding somewhat come into apposition,
and form with one another a continuous jieripheral margin." Into the bony structures, which
build up the latter, he does not enter, nor has he any remarks regarding the structure of the
supporting vertebræ.

Jordan and Evi:rmann (21 a, p. 759) in their diagnosis of the order Lophobranchii adopt
the remarks of Cope, quoted above; the same are repeated in later works, by Jordan and
Snydeh (22, p. 3) and Jordan and Evermann (21 b, p. 117).

HuoT (19, p. 252) remarks : "Dans la région du corps où se trouve la nageoire dorsale,
tes apophyses épineuses se prolongent par des cartilages interépineux qui, eux-mêmes, se
prolongent par les rayons cartilagineux(!) des nageoires", which mode of stating the facts is

■ These cartilaginous rods are according to Mc. M.'s figure 2, as weil as ray own observations in
Siphonosloma tgphle and Syngn. rostellatiis, parallel to each other, as are the interspinous bones in
most adult bony fisfies.

SH 349

somewhat misleading; further he mentions that the vertebral column in Lophobranchs, where
the tail-fin is absent, is pointed behind, while in forms with a caudal fin the last vertebra
is provided with "deux lames cartilagineuses situées dans le plan médian de Symmetrie, l'une
dorsalement, et lautre venlralemcnf (both are really ventral in position'.

Reoan (45 c, p. 5) remarks that, in contrast to the Centriscidæ and Araphisilidse (his
Soleniehthyes\ the "anterior vertebræ are not elongate."

I'l p. 308 [42], The skeleton of the head has been examined by several authors. Curiously
enough some facts have been correctly slated by older observers which later authors have
failed to interpret properly, apparently because they did not know the previous literature
or at all events did not consult it carefully enough, every support from illustrations being
missing.

Already Lackpede (31, T. Ill, p. 44, p. 60) correctly gave the number of branchiostegal
rays as two in Siphonostoma tijphle (and the Syngnathi) and in Hippocampus.

Meckee (35, p. 343), speaking of the suspensorial a])paratus in Teleosts, which (with
exception of the pterygo-palatine part) he calls "Gelenktheil des Schlafbeins" and regards as
representing the quadrate of Reptiles and Birds in spite of his own statement, that it consists
"at least of two bones", says: "In Hinsicht auf die Grösse ist sie bei den Siingnalhen vielleicht
am ansehnlichsten. Hier wird der bei weitem gröste Theil des Unterkiefers nicht durch
das eigentliche Unterkieferbein, sondern durch sie gebildet. Das oberste Stück li. e. the hyo-
mandibular; ist klein und bildet kaum den dreissigsten Theil der ganzen Knochensammlung,
die aus mehreren länglichen, einander ganz oder zum Theil von innen nach aussen bedecken-
den besteht." With these words M. only shows that he did not partake in the old mistake,
involved in the name ""Syiigitathus", viz. that the upper and lower jaws were partly coalesced;
but M. does not attempt to analyse these parts which even to the latest authors have been
most difficult to make out and have almost never been correctly interpreted.

The brain-case proper is not at all mentioned by M. But in the last volume of his
work, completed much later than the first vl833i, several more or less correct statements
concerning the opercular and branchial apparatus are given. Thus he correctly describes
the three opercular bones (p. 110); further he gives the number of branchiostegal rays as
2—3 in Siingnalhiis and Hippocampus (p. 118; later, p. 129, he says 3—4); he says (p. 1261 that
the hyoid only consists of one piece, that a urohyal C'das mittlere oberflächliche Zungenbein")
is present ,p. 135i, in Hippocampus very short and slender, and that it does not reach the
clavicles p. 142, 144); on the other side he does not find any glossohyal ("der vor der Vereini-
gung der vorderen Seitenäste liegende Knochen oder Knorpel"); it is absent together with all
the other unpaired parts lying behind the hyoid (the basibranchials, which he names "die
tiefe mittlere Zungenbeinschicht") or at most developed in the shape of a slender and long
cartilage (p. 145, 148). The branchial arches, which Tiedemann (Deutsches Archiv T. 2, p. Ill)
had declared to be cartilaginous, he correctly regards as ossified (p. 135, 155). The presence
of gill-rakers he denies on p. 162, but later, p. 168, be states their presence.

Before the publication of the last volume of Mfickee's work Cuvier and Valexciexnes
(lO, T. 1, p. 296) had declared the branchiostegal rays to be absent, and in the excellent work
on the branchial apparatus in the Vertebrates, published about at the same time (1832) as the
6th volume of MECKEL s work, Rathke too was of this opinion (44, p. 6); and he — like
Meckel — thought that the hyoid consisted of only one piece (p. 3). Among fishes lacking
the copula for the hyoid (i. e. my first basibranchial) R. mentions Syngnalhus, while the
glossohyal is present as a slender rod as well as the urohyal ("Zungenbeinkiel") (p. 4i; he
found no basibranchials (p. 12), and no teeth on the lower pharyngeals, which are "schmale
und schlanke Bogen." On p. 76 he regards the opercular apparatus as only consisting of
one piece. In the tabular view on p. 20 he resumes his observations of the branchial skeleton
in Synyn. rondelctii in the following way:

45-

350

Erster

Zveiter

Dri

tter

Vierter

Schlund-

Kiemenbogen

kiefer

8» l-ö L

•n

So -o

■n

igs-
ed

■a

a
3 -a

■a

•S

=^ = .ÏÏ .ÏÏ

3 -o :=

0»

)ind
glie

es G

s Gl

bind
glie

es G

s Gl

-a 5 O
1^ S

13 Ü

^ ^ CM CO

•*

Ti-

c<5

•^

S Ä

i!i 1

—

Transcribed into the formula used by nie in the present paper the above I'oiinula
would be:

Gill arch ,,^^011131 "yP""^'"- I Ceratobr. I Epibr. I P^a^yngo-

III

+
+

+
+
+

If we compare my formula on p. 307 [41] of the present paper the difference will he
easily perceived at once.

CuviEU (Lauiullahd) (9 b, p. 646) gives the following account of the Lo phobranches:
"Ces poissons ont ... le squelette plutôt fibreux qu'osseux; cependant la composition du crâne
ne s'écarte point de celle des poissons osseux. Dans le syngnathe, l'orbite est complètement
fermé, en avant, en haut et en arrière, par les frontaux, et en bas par le temporal (= hyo-
mandibulan et le préopercule, qui font l'office de soùs-orbitaires; le museau est très alongé.

Uhyppocampe a le museau moins long, les fronfaux étroits, et porlanl au dessus de
l'orbite chacun une apophyse presque verticale qui forme une sorte de corne. La partie
postérieure du crâne est pyramidale et creusée de chaque côte à la face occipitale d'une fosse
profonde formée par le mastoïdien (= pterotic) et l'occipital externe (= epiotic)." Nothing is
found about the other cranial structures, neither in the volume quoted nor in the follow-
ing volumes.

The work of KOSTLIN (30) contains some scattered remarks ipp. 309, 317, ,337, 338, 342, 356,
361, 370, 378, 394, 400) concerning the skull, but they are so defective and incomiilele, that it
seems hardly possible to decide, if he had a tolerably correct understanding of its structure
or not. The suspensorial and branchial parts are not mentioned.

HoLLARD (18, p. .')65), who is of the opinion that the "'Lophobranches " are to be com-
bined with the "Ganoides proprement dits", only mentions the opercular apparatus in the
Syngnathiils. He describes the large operculum as well as the small subo]jerculum ; the
interopei'culum apparently is overlooked. Regarding the preoperculum is said: "Confondu
en avant avec la série sous-maxillaire, il n'est reconnaissable qu à ses rapports avec l'hyoïde.
Ce dernier lui-même ne porte plus ici que deux ou trois rayons branchiostéges filiformes "

Khöye« (29) in describing the single species of Fi])efishes found at the Danish coasts,
has given some osteological information which must be said to be of value and, taken together,
to render a more complete and correct account of the structure of the skull than it would
be possible to gather from any of his predecessors.

On 1). 679 (Siphonostoma typhle) he states that he could only observe two long, very

85 351

slender, bristle-like branchioslejial rays on each side; and four pair of branchial arches,
provided with f^ill-rakers in the shape of short spines (p. 6801 The mandibular and suspensory
parts are mentioned in the following words (translated by me) (p. 685): "The intermaxil-
1 a ries, situated over and a little in front of the maxillaries, form the whole upper border
of the mouth; they are very slender, almost like bristles, except at the middle of the upper
border of the mouth, wliere they meet. Here they ex])and like a club, but an ascending part
is completely lacking. The maxillaries are hardly longer than the intermaxillæ. but much
stouter, flat, expanded behind or oarshaped. The lower jaw very broad in proportion
to its length (its greatest width behind larger than half of the length), plate-shaped, with
a longitudinal crest on the outer face, the anterior margin semilunar and convex, the
posterior semilunar and concave. The temporal bone i i. e. the hyomandibular) has a
very short, broad and flat shape. <)s iijmjxtnicum (hiv.' extremely elongated and slender,
linear, in front deeply forked, the lower branch longer and horizontal, the upijer one some-
what curved upwards. Symplecticum large, elongated, plate shaped, somewhat obliquely-
foursided, in front drawn out into a long point." It will be seen that KnöYEH here regards
the real symplectic as a metapterygoid; but what is meant with ''Syniiilecticum " I am not
able to decide (the infraorbitals'.'}.

Describing Syngnathiis acus Kr. says p. 7ÜÜ : ""The i n terniaxi 1 1 a ries are about as in
the preceding species (S. typhlc;, only smaller in proportion to the size of the body. Also the
maxillæ are shorter than in S. Typhlc but very much broader, curved somewhat like an S,
the end expanded like a shovel or spade. The very small mandible is so short and broad
that its shape almost forms a quadrant. The palatine consists of two branches, almost
equal in length, the one (the articular part) somewhat stouter, the other slender and pointed;
they meet at a somewhat obtuse angle. The temporal short, very broad (its width plainly
greater than half its length', stout, flat, irregular. Tymiianicum and Sym])lecticum about as
in the preceding species. The vomer slender almost like a bristle. The ethmoid about
equal in length with the vomei-, but mucli broader and stouter than the latter, although of
elongated and narrow, sword-like shape; behind it appears cleft like a fork. The preoper-
culum about of the same length as the snout, very strongly pointed in front, feebly curved
shaped like a very elongated triangle or rather like a dagger. The opercular bone much
vaulted, thin or scale-like, rounded behind, truncate in front, with a longitudinal crest or
ridge a little over the middle of its height. The suboperculum hidden below the oper-
culum, very elongated, narrow, sabre-shaped. The i n teroperc ul u m , which contributes
considerably to the formation of the snout and has the whole length of the latter, is strongly
pointed, dagger-like behind, in front, however, broad, thin, plate-shaped, truncate. Eye-bones
{ossa infraorbilalia) seem to be completely missing." Thus, with exception of the mistakes
regarding the symplectic and "tympanic" and the infraorbitals, Kröyers's description — as far
as it goes — is quite correct.

Under Xcropbis irqiiorcus Kr. ip. 709) mentions that he only found one branchiostegal
ray; on p. 713 he correctly ])oints out some small dill'erences from the preceding species in
the shape of the same cranial elements which were described in these.

Among distinctive characters common to all Syngnathids Peters (41, p. 103) mentions:
"der einfache Kiemendeckel ohne Suboperculum, die Verwachsung des Interoperculums mit
dem Präoperculum ', statements which it had been better to omit.

Parker (39, i).32, note') who bad the notion that the Lophobranchii were in some way
related to the "generalised (lanoids', supports this idea of the presence esjjecially of "jugulars ',
"so rare in the Teleostei, namely in Elopa and Miyalops. These arc well developeil in Syn-
gnathus and Hippocampus; although I am not aware that any other Ichthyotomist has observed
this fact." The supposed "jugulars ' of course are the interopercular bones.

■ CuviER uses tlie name "Tynipanale ". not "Tympanicum ', for tlie Metapterygoid; Kröyfu else-
where uses the name 'Symplecticum" for the same bone, for which Ci:viku and later authors have
used the name.

352 86

DUMÉHIL describes briefly (12 a, p. 1-15, b, p. 478) the intermaxillaries, maxillaries and
mandible; the latter articulated to the quadrate ("jugal" or "quadrato-jugal"), which is much
elongated and forms part of the tubiform snout, together with the ethmoid, vomer and
nasal and the coalesced sub- and interoperculum; a, p. 149, b, p. 481 heremarks that 2 or 3
branchiostegal rays are found and adds that the preoperculum is absent and repeats the
wrong statement that the suboperculuni and interoperculum are coalesced to form part
of the tube. Some of these incorrect statements will be found still surviving in the later
literature.

Cope (8, p. 457) states for his Lophobranchii (comprising Solenoslomidæ. Siinr/nalhida\
Hippocampidw): "Mouth bounded by the premaxiilary above; posttemporal simple, coossified
with tile cranium. Basis cranii simple .... Inferior and superior pharyngeals and superior
branchihyals ( i. e. epibranchials) wanting or unossified." To Cope's diagnostic skeletal
characters RvüEU (48. ]). 193) makes the following, not very fortunate, addition: "Opercle a
simple plate." On p. 196 he says regarding Hippocampus: "There appear to be no mesial
hyal elements at all, which also seems to be the case with the adult, the medial skeletal
elements of the tongue being suppressed." Further he (correctly) adds that the lower mesial
elements of the branchial skeleton also appear to be absent.

POLiCHET i42) in describing the development of the head skeleton in Syiuinalhits found
3 branchiostegal rays very early present. Hegarding the adult structures so very little is
mentioned that it is impossible to make out, how far P. had a tolerably complete or correct
acquaintance with their peculiarities, p. 83 he says: "Chez l'adulte, quand on cherche à
séparer par les procédés ordinaires, macération, cuisson, etc., le symplectique du jugal (i. e.
the quadrate) la branche cartilagineuse se brise et son extrémité reste adhérente au jugal,
dans lequel elle est fortement engagée. De façon que le cartilage qui constituait le temporal
primordial ( i. e. the cartilaginous rod representing the hyo)uandibular the sym|)lectic), se
retrouve ici dans trois os chez l'adulte: 1" le temporal li. e. hyomandibidar); 2^ le symplec-
tique; 3" le jugal." However correct this statement in itself will be found to be, it may still
be open to doubt, if P. has really been acquainted with the peculiar shape and connections
of the symplectic in the adult.

E. MoREAi' (36, p. 29) describing the head of the Si/nç/nathida' says: "La bouche est à
l'extrémité d"un tube dont les parois sont constituées en bas par une aponévrose et les inter-
opercules, latéralement par l'appareil tympanique, en dessus par les plérygoïdiens, les pala-
tins et le vomer La mâchoire supérieure est formée par les intermaxillaires très-grcles,

très-courts, débordés en dehors par les maxillaires qui se terminent en une sorte de palette
élargie. La mâchoire inférieure est constituée, dune façon normale, par trois os, le dentaire,
l'articulaire et l'angulaire; elle est articulée avec l'appareil tympanique composé par ses
quatre osselets. "

Here we meet for the first time with the correct statement that the mandible is com-
posed of three pieces as usual; but unfortunately M. does not enter into an analysis of the
suspensory parts. In saying, however, that the latter is composed of "its four bones", he
shows that he cannot be quite right. Where 4 bones arc present, these always are the hyo-
mandibular, symplectic, quadrate and metapterygoid. But the latter is absent here; probably
the infraorbitals, which M. nowhere mentions, have been taken among the suspensory bones.
Under the "Appareil branchial" M. further (p. 30) mentions the operculum, suboperculuni and
interoperculum, but he slates wrongly: "il n'y a pas de préopercule."" He describes the hyoid
(without mentioning its composition of pieces), carrying "two or three" branchiostegal rays,
and an elongated urohyal ("sous-hyoidien").

R!(; .Muiuii'cH (34) has given a careful and in several points correct description of the
head-skeleton in Sijngnathus peckiaims; it is partly supported on transverse sections, and due
attention is paid to the cartilaginous parts of the developing young and of those preserved
in the adult ; furthermore this account is illustrated with figures. On p. 626 he describes the
adult cranium. He has correctly seen that the orbitosphenoid.s, basisphenoid and nasals are
w.nnting The opiotics he takes to represent the i)arietals, but he seems to be inclined to

87 353

regard these bones as "dermo-epiotics". "for they directly overlie the epiotics, appearing like
a parostosis formed upon these bones.' Alisphenoids seem to him to be absent, and about
the posttemijoral he is indecided but inclined "to consider it homologous, to a certain extent
at any rate, with the supra- tempo ral of Amia."

In the ethmoid he (p. 629) mentions a canal, which he (wrongly) takes "to be the con-
tinuation of the main slime canals, which also traverses the frontals." His account of the
development of the visceral and suspensory jiarts in the young is good and correct; only, as
far as 1 can see, the cartilage which according to Mai; Mukrich represents the metaptervgoid,
must belong to the entopterygoid; and it seems hardly credible that only 4 cartilaginous
branchial arches should be present, in as much as the adult possesses five. In the adult,
however, M.'s interpretations apparently contain some graver errors. He recognizes the
stylohyal C'interhyal'") and finds the hyoid consisting of "a cerate- and hypohyal", "the
epihyal being apparently absent"; but in saying (p. 638) that "the genio-hyoid element (i. e. the
glossohyal) does not appear to ossify and in fact has disappeared ', he certainly is wrong;
and regarding the suspensory parts, he considers the |)osterior infraorbital miy true antorbital)
as Ibc meta])terygoid, in si)ite of his observation of its being "separated from the symjjlectic
by a quantity of muscular tissue. " The anterior infraorbital he correctly regards as such.
Further he did not understand the interoperculum, which he, however, has seen, but mentions
as "a scale-like bone, v^'hich has no special representative in other Teleosts." He only describes
one pterygoid, ajiparently my ectopterygoid, and denies the existence of intermaxillaries, and
intero])erculuui, and about the preoi)ercuhim he says that it "appears to be absent, or at any
rate very rudimentary."

Among the extremely detailed descriptions of the single bones, composing the skull of
Teleosts, which are contained in the work of v. Ki.EiN (26 b and c;, are some concerning the
Syngnathids {Sijngnalhiis. Hippocampus. Caslerotokeus, Leptoichthijs. Phyllopterijx \ (b) p. 135
he correctly states that no eye-muscle-canal is found; p. 136, that the parasphenoid — as in
Fistularia — does not reach the vomer anteriorly, which at all events does not hold good
for SynniKiUtiis and Hi}>pocampiis: p. lôO he mentions, that "ahe orbitales ' a. e. alisphenoids)
may be separateil from the "alæ temporales ' i e. the prootic^ in some Syngnathids; p. 234—36
the anterior, ethmovomerine, part is described at great length, but apparently correctly in
most respects (that nasals are lacking is not mentioned), (c) p. 128 the basioccipital condyle
is said to be about convex in Synç/nathus, decidedly convex in Gasterolokeus and Phi/llopleryx,
the first is certainly, the latter probably wrong, p. 157 under the lengthy description of the
exoccipitals, parietals are mentioned in Phijlloplenjx , but a thorough examination of the
detailed description of the "occipitalia externa" ii. e. the epiotics , found on p. 197—98, reveals
tliat the parietals in question must be the epiotics, while v. Ki.ein s "occipitalia externa" (or
epiotics are really the posttemporats; and quite the same will be found to be the case with
the parietals ascribed to Hippocampus on p. 197; they also are the epiotics, and the post-
temporal is taken to be "occipitale externum." On the other hand v. K. declares on p. 217,
where the supraoccipital is dealt with, that in Sfingiiathus the parietals are not separated
from the frontals. Finally on p. 251, under the "squama temporalis ' or pterotic, the following
statement is found: "Bei den mir bekannten Syngnathidæ reichen die Kiefersusi)ensorien,
welche die Seiten der röhrenförmigen Schnauze bilden, nicht an die squam;e", which is
wrong.

S('.H.\1"F (50, p. 12) describes the cranial skeleton of Siphonostoma lyphle and figures the
skull from above (Fig. 4, the vomer omitted), and the whole head seen from the side (Fig. 18).
He regards the epiotic as parietal and with Mc. Mi'RRic.H the posttemporal as a "supra-
temporal. He rightly denies the existence of a nasal. In the suspensory part he, too, does
not recognize the preoperculum, which be takes to be the symplectic; he has correctly inter-
preted the infraorbitals and the palatine, but about the remaining pterygo-i)alatinc series he
only says: "Innerhalb dieser Infraorbitalia liegen die Pterygoidea, die hier jedoch nicht
berücksichtigt werden." The intermaxilla and maxilla are correctly observed, but regarding
the lower jaw is said: "Das Mandibulare ist stark entwickelt, -\rticulare, .\ngulare und Dentale

354 88

jedoch nicht zu unterscheiden" (p. 14). Of Hippocampus the skull is figured Ironi above (Fig. 11);
the figure and the corresponding text (p. 21) show the posttemporal interpreted as a pterotic,
the cpiotic as a parietal.

LiLiJF.noKG (32, p. 437), in giving a diagnosis of the genus Siiiiynalluis JncUiding as sub-
genus Siphunostoma) says that all 3 opercular bones and 2-3 bristle-like branchiostegal rays
are present (about the opercular apparatus L., however, is mistaken, cfr. below.

Describing Siphonostoma ti/phle L. (p. 443) states that the preoperculum is wanting, and
2 branchiostegal rays are present; p. 446 the skull is described in detail, upon the whole
correctly; inter alia is said that the opisthotic, basisphenoid and orbitosphenoid are absent
and the alisphenoid present. Incorrect is the following: "The ethmoid, lying on the fore
part of the vomer in the shape of a keel, does not reach back to the anterior ends of the
frontal. The visible parts of the parietals are small." In the interpretation of the suspensory
bones (p. 447) some greater errors occur in as much as L. considers the preoperculum to be the
interoperculum, while the preoperculum is said to be absent, and takes the real intcroper-
culum to be the metapterygoid. The infraorbitals are correctly interpreted, but his statement,
that the borders between them and partly the border against the "interoperculum" (i. e. the
preoperculum) are obliterated, is wrong. He further seems inclined to see some more infra-
orbitals behind the posterior one (ao in my rigure\ The pterygo-palatine bones and the
mouth-parts are correctly observed and described (L.'s "niesopterygoid" is = my ento-
pterygoid). About the branchial skeleton is only said that "os linguale" ,the glossohyal)
is very short, but the "basibranchiostegal bone" (presumably the urohyal) is long, slender
and rod-shaped, and that according to Mc. Mukrich the epihyal is wanting in the small and
short hyoid.

Smitt (54) is, as far as I have seen, literally the only author, who almost without any
mistakes has described the suspensory skeleton of a Syngnathid; I therefore think it just lo
quote his description in extenso:

"In the Deepnoscd Pipefish (Siinfiiialhns Ifiplilc} the elongation of the snout is [iroduced
in the following manner. The ethmovomerine part is elongated like a staff, and coated below
by the long and narrow parasphenoid bone, while the frontal bones extend forward above
in the form of long and narrow covering-bones over about half of the said elongation. The
hyomandibular bone is an oblong, quadrangular but irregular, vertically set disk, which is
united at a right angle below with the alinormally developed o s sy mplect i eu m, which is
directed forward, extends below the eyes, and sends out a branch obliquely upward towards
the lateral ethmoid (prefrontal) bone, while a second, still longer, horizontal branch meets
a process in a backward direction from the quadrate bone. This horizontal branch of the
sy mplect icu m is partly naked (without covering bones) externally, but is covered behind
and below, throughout the greater jiortion of its extent, by the ])reoperculum. The vertical
(posterior) branch of the preoperculum lies outside the hyomandibular bone and is united
above to the inferior margin of the suborbital bones. The obliquely ascending branch of
the sy nipl ect icuni, on the other hand, is separated by a space, occupied by the masticatory
muscles, from the two posterior suborbital bones, which bound the orbit below, but is united
to the hind superior corner of the anterior suborbital (the preorbital) bone, where the latter
meets the lateral ethmoid bone. The foremost suborbital bone forms the greater part of the
side of the snout, being united in front as a covering bone to the ento-(meso-) pterygoideum
and the quadrate bone, but leaving behind the latter an opening in the middle for about a
third of the depth of the snout; the middle suborbital bone is united below to the sym-
plecticum; the hindmost suborbital bone both to the symplecticum and, behind, to the
preoperculum. We refer to the opercular apparatus a narrow, lancet-shaped, thin bone
which lies along the inside of the horizontal, forward branches of the preoperculum and the
symplecticum and the horizontal, backward branch of the quadrate bone. This lancet-
shaped bone is united by ligaments behind to the upper part of the ceratohyoid bone and
in front to the angular part of the lower jaw. The latter union clearly shows that the bone
must be an interoperculum, corresponding most nearly in form and position to the inter-

89 355

o|)erculiiiii in Tetrodon for cxamiile. tlioiii,'li here it lias i)asse(l witliin tlie sy m pi ecli ou m
ami l)e(()iiie united i)ehind fo tlie upper jiart of tlie outside of llie eeratoliyoideum, instead
of retaining its union to tiie subopereuluni, wliieli is liere reduced to an extremely thin disk
within tiie lower margin of the operculum.

The lower jaw is remarkable for its extraordinary dci)th behind and its sharply curved
and toothless dental part. The maxillary bones are comparatively well-developed and their
hind (lower) extremity is exjianded; but the toothless intermaxillaries are small, styliform,
and without nasal i)roccsses. The i)alatine bones are shorter than the maxillaries and of
lairly unilorm breadtli. At the anterior angle of the union of each i)alatine bone to the to])
of the ascending branch of the tpiadratc bone we (ind the narrow |)terygoid bone, which is
bent at an obtuse angle, and behind the sai<l union, close to the ridge of the snout, the
entopterygoid bone, which is united in the same manner to the quadrate bone." On p. 664
S. adds: "The tongue is wanting, and the glossohyoid bone can hardly be discerned; but the
urohyoid bone is comjiaratively long."

The only point, in which S. seeius to be mistaken, is that he has found 3 suborbital
bones; in fact his anterior sub- or infraorbital is only the anterior outer, plateshaped part
of the entopterygoid.

Smitt s work, although it is translated into English, seems not to have been noticed by
later authors, at any rate not so far as the Lophobranchiates are concerned; and all the
later authors are far inferior to him in theii- interpretations.

Gii.L (14b, p. 156) says: "Some erroneous conceptions have been entertained and misstate-
ments made respecting features of the pipefish's structure. Only a few need be here noticed,
however. Such are the statements that the i)reoperculum and intero])erculum are wanting,
that the intermaxillaries are also absent, and that the symjilectic is a very im])ortant element.
The preoperculum and interoperculum, as well as intermaxillaries, are developed, but I am
imable to identify the symplectic. In no respect do the Lophobranchs deviate so materially
from ordinary lishes as has been sup])osed. But, as long ago shown by Parker, they mani-
fest, in addition to the i)eculiarities generally noticed, deviations in the scapular arch. There
is no posterotemporal. the posttemjioral and proscapula being immediately connected, and
the "coraco-scapular plate' is entiie and not broken uj) into hypercoracoid and hypocoracoid
bones." What GliJ, regards as preoi)erculum and interoperculum is not clear, but he un-
doubtedly did not recognize the large symplectic. In a later paper (14 c, p. 805) G. has adopted
Sc.ii.'VFF's figures and interpretations, and accordingly he says: 'the preoperculum is absent";
about the interoperculum and symplectic nothing is stated.

.lOHD.VN and EvKi\M.\NN (21 a, p. 759^ include among the distinctive characters for their
order Lophobranchii the following cranial features: "Superior branchihyals (i. e. epibranchials)
and pharyngeals, and basal branchihyals fi. c. hypobranchials wanting or not ossified. Post-
temporal simple, coossified with the cranium; basis of cranium simple ... Gillcovers i-e<luced
to a large simple plate." Most of these statements are probably taken from (^OI'E, but they
are not correct; they are repeated later by Jordan and Snydeu (22, p. 3).

A. S. Woodward (59, p. 370) in the Synopsis of Families included under his Suborder
Hemibranchii states for the Lophobianchii . Solenoslonuiliilœ and Stingiiathida' 'opercular
ajiparalus much reduced", and j). 380 for the Family Syngnathidæ: "o|)ercular a|)paratus
reduced to operculum.

SwiNNEurox (56 a, p. 554) referring to his lig. 50, copied below, says about Sijru/natlnis
{Siphonoslonui): "The palatine bone (pa.^ has the same characters as in the stickleback and
like that is partially enclosed posteriorly by the single pterygoid (c). The ethmoid region . . .
is seen to owe its great length to elongation, not of the hinder half, containing the mesetli-
nioid cartilage, but to that of the front half, consisting jiurely of ethmoid plate. Nevertheless
the mesethmoid bone ilig. .50 e. m.) has apparently extended quite to the anterior end, including
the preethiiioid cornu. The palatine bone ipa.i which is attached to the |)re-ethnioid cornu ipa'.)
between the mesethmoid bone and vomer is carried too far forward for it to bear any rela-
tionship to the paretlimoid -bone (e. j). b.i." To the above I would remark 1) that the pterygoid

n. K. 1). ViilensU. Sclsk. Skr., 7. ItæliUc. n:ilni\ idonsk. og müthem. .^W. VIM. S. *)<>

356

in Syngnatliiis is not single, an ento- and an ecloptervgoid ])eing present'; 2) that tlie i)art
of S.'s supposed etlimoid reacliing al)out from e. ni. in liis figure to pa.' is really the vomer.
Thus the palatines (in the adult) have no connection with the ethmoid at all. The "acrartetc"
condition, upon which S. lays great stress, I think (with Daheste, who many years ago observed
the same) is of no great systematic value. ]). 575 S\V. compares the head skeleton of (idslcfiistciis,
Fisliilarid and Siingiialhiis. As I have previously under I'lsliilaria (juoted his words at some
length and also noted some of the mistakes regarding Siinfinalhiis, I may refer the rcadei- to
p. 353 [77] of this paper. Here I need only point out that Sw. has correctly observed the
])osition of the pterotic, ])eculiar to all Lophobranclis as well as the whole group here under
consideration, and furthermore some features in the branchial skeleton of Siphonostoma,
regarding which he says (p. 577): "In Syngnathus the lirst and second basibranchials and the
second hypobranchial alone are present; the fourth e|)ibranchial has gone, but the edentu-
lous pharyngobranchials, though rod-like, occu])y the same |)osition relatively to one another
as in Gaslerosteus."

Otherwise his interpretation of the visceral (incl. susjjcnsory) skeleton is far from being
fortunate. Thus, not only the statements concerning the absence of the basihyal (i. e. glosso-
hyal) and the suboperculuni are wrong, but also a good deal of the description quoted below,

which refers to his figure 50; the latter I have
h. _ , ,^^ ■ co])ied here, and it should be compared with

my figures 4, 5, 9, 10, on PI. Y. "The true infra-
orbital, or rather the first bone of the sub-
orl)ital series (fig. 50, s. o.'), articulates with the
jKirethmoid (e. p. b.) above, and forms the lower
border of the narial opening. Ventrally it aj)-
pears to divide into two lamina?, lying on the
outer and inner sides respectively of the cheek
muscles, and is attached by its lower border to
the combined symplcctic and ])re-opcrculum (sym. + o. pr.). In front of the latter lies the
greatly extended cpuulrate (qu.), of which only the small part indicated by the dotted line
originated by ossification of cartilage. Along its uiiper and anterior borders lie three bones,
a, b, c, whose homologies are uncertain; b. and c. together have all the relationshii)s of the
pterygoid in the stickleback, but as b. is developed in relation to the vestigial metapterygoid
process, it must be the meta])terygoid bone. a. is probalily the nasal. The palatine is insigni-
ficant and edentulous." What S\V. here calls the inner lamina of s. o.' must be the sym-
plcctic (comp, my fig. 5 on PI. V); the combined symplectic and ])reoperculum is simjily the
preoperculum alone; b. is the entopterygoid, c. the ectopterygoid. That his fig. 50 is wrong
with regard to the vomer and mesethnioid, is already stated above.

Hi'OT (19) describes (p. 211) and figures the cartilaginous skeleton of the newly hatched
young of Si/nfin. diimerilii, S. acus and Hippocamjms utillulatns. Regarding the skeleton of
the adult he more en passant makes only the following remarks, which he ought to have
omitted, p. 221: "11 n'y a pas de squelette oi)erculaire ni ile rayons branchiostiges ', and p. 252:
"Le squelette céphalique est en partie membraneux, en partie cartilagineux." (Perhaps the
latter statement does not concern the adult, which seems not quite clear; but on p. 280
sub No. 11 of his "Conclusions", which certainly regard the adult, is said: "Le squelette est
presque entièrement fibreux. On ne rencontre de cartilages nets que dans la région crânienne
et dans les rayons des nageoires").

Boi'EENGEH (4 a, p. 152 and b, p. 174) in the diagnosis of the (Iroup III, Lophobranchii,
of his Suborder Catosteomi includes the following osteological characters: "Præo|)erculum

7^- syrrv.^ ap.p.

Fig. 1. liopiodiiction of Swinxertons fig. 50.

• Neither is the pterygoid single in the Gasterostei, f)ut liere anterior]}' only tlie ectopterygoid is
present, vvliile posteriorly, joining the lij'omandibuiar, is found a metapterygoid, whicli is ovcrfooked

by SwiNNERTON.

91 ;i57

;il)senl; syiiiploctic luucli t'lonHalc; l)r;inchial apparatus more or less rcdiifcd ...; postlciiipoi-al
sini])le, immovably attached to the skull."

RiCdAN (45 c, p. 8) wrongly states that "the head is capable of considerable movement
in the vertical plane, the occipital condyle being convex."

Developmental stages of the head skeleton have been examined more or less thoroughly
by PoucHET (43) (Sijnuiialluis), Rydeü (48) {Hippocampus], Mc. MruuicH (34) {Syiignalhus), SwiN-
NEiiTON (.")(i a) {Siphonosloma) and IlioT (19) (Siinçinalhiis. Hippocampus). With exception of
Mc. Miititu.ii and Swinnerton (cfr. above) these authors seem not to have ]iaid sufficient
attention at the same time to the adult structures, and therefore some of their interpretations
of the cartilages or incipient l)ones are not always quite correct, but it would lead too far
here to enter into details regarding this matter.

20 ]). 308 [42]. The earliest remarks regarding the shoulder-girdle and sca|nilar arch,
known to me, are those of Khöyer (29); under >S;/;i(//i. acus he mentions on j). 699 that the
nuchal i)lates, in the Pipefishes generally, are soldered together with the spinous i)rocesses
of the underlying vertebra? and the shoulder-apparatus, the first nuchal also with the occipital
bone; upon the whole the i)lates of the first ring are coalesced with the shoulder to such
an extent, that they can only with difficulty be sei)arated from the latter. ]). 702 is said that
the shoulder only consists of one ])one (i. e. the clavicle), which is correctly described in
details; of the scapular arch K. has only observed one bone, after his description evidently
the coracoid; but it is regarded as the "upper arm"; "the remaining bones of the arm and
hand are quite rudimentary." The same two parts Kr. finds in Xerophis auiuoreus (p. 714)
"where the forearm and hand have completely vanished."

Pahkek (40, J). 30) figures the shoulder-girdle, seen from the inner side, of Si/unii. acus.
He correctly observed the posttemporal and the clavicle; but, as already mentioned p. 303 [37]
of the present paper, he did not understand the scapular arch: the coracoid he regards as
two separate "interclavicular" bones; the scapula is completely overlooked, and the carti-
laginous part of the scapular arch is considered to be the whole "true shoulder-girdle", "of
extreme interest, as it is persistently soft, and has undergone no segmentation."

Cope (S. p. 457) has adopted the ijosttenqjoral and also the "well developed inter-
clavicles."

MOREAU (36, p. 30) only .says: "Ceinture .scapulaire non attachée au crâne, mais à la
colonne vertébrale et aux boucliers antérieurs. ' That v. Klein (26 c) takes the jjosttemporal
to be the epiotic ("occipitale externum" v. Kl.) is mentioned above p. 353 [87]. On p. 251 he
says: "Die Schultergiirtcl legen sich an den ersten Wirbel an"; a statement only partly
correct.

Sc».\FF (50) does not examine the shoulder-girdle; but on p. 22 he describes in Hippo-
campus "die Platte, welche die Brustflossen tragt." From this description it is evident, that
S. regards the dermal part of the clavicle, the "cover plate" and the "jugular" plate as one
piece, and that he has no understanding of the attachment of the pectoral fin.

LiLi,.iEBORG (32, p. 449) after a correct description of the posttemporal and clavicular
bones says that "on the inner margin of the clavicle is found a thin, almost membrane-
like, cartilaginous plate, which may represent the coracoid and scapular bones, and at the
posterior margin of this plate is the attachment of the pectoral fin, which thus appears to
be but weak." The ossified parts (coracoid, scapula and basais) are thus completely over-
looked.

Smitt (54, p. 666) gives a figure, which is only a combined and somewhat altered copy
of those of Parker; the coraco-scapular part is introduced into Parker's figure of the cla-
vicular skeleton; the latter is corrected in so far that it has only one "interclavicle", but
SMrn- has not seen that this bone is really the coracoid. The four basais or pterygials are
wrongly represented, only their basal parts, which are enclosed in the coraco-scai)ular car-
tilage, being present in tlie figure; evidently their distal parts, which Parker compared with

46*

358 92

".stag's-liorns", have been broken off. Thus neilher Smitt nur PaüKEU h;ul ;my idea iil' (he
part these distal branched ends play as means of lixation of the pectoral I'm.

The few remarks by GiLi, (14 b) and Jordan and Evermann (21 a), apparently following
PAiiKKii, are quoted above. Siebenrock (äS, p. 118) describes the ]iosttemporal in Hippocampus
and mentions the attachment of the clavicle to the two anterior vertebræ.

GooDKK.ii (1.5) ascribes (p. 414) to the Lophobranchii "very small pectoral radiais", |).4irj
adding tor the subtribe B (including Syngnathidæ and llipi)ocampidæ): "with a row of distal
cartilages." That his (original) figure 413 1) is incorrect was stated on p. 303 [37] of the pre-
sent paper.

Regan (45 b, p. 79) characterizing [he Sfiuf/nalhoidi'i says: "post-temporal simple, suturally
united to the cranium; no supracleithrum ; clcithrum firmly attached to the transverse pro-
cesses of the two anterior vertebræ." Later (45 c, 1910) p. 8 he states that "the clavicle is
attached to the exjjanded transverse process of the lirst vertebra."

21 p. 308 [42]. Regarding the nuchal plates, the size and shape of which are often
described by systcmatists, I may point out that most members of the Hippocampine group
are possessed of three, a fact which does not seem to have been observed before. Thus
MOREAU (36, p. 35) says for Hippocampus: "II y a deux pièces nuchales"; the anterior is
described in detail and its shape compared with a crown. "La seconde pièce nuchale est
allongée, elle est étroite, elle fait une espèce de toit au-dessus de l'espace vide, qui reste
entre les deux pièces latérales supérieures du premier anneau du tronc ou de l'anneau sca-
pulaire i i. c. the ujiper parts of the clavicle)." From this description follows that the hind-
most nuchal plate has escaped attention. Schafe (50, p. 21 ) does not mention any number
of nuchals in Hippocampus, but he seems not at all to understand the structures of the
nuchal region: "Die Exoccipitalia und das Suijraoccipitale bilden mehrere zu einem kronen-
artigen (iebilde verschmolzene Stacheln, an welche sich auf Nackenschildern noch einige
Hervorragungen anschliessen." This seems to mean that S. regards the anterior nuchal, the
"corona", as part of the skull. No better is the following: "Das erste Schild, welches auf
den Kopf folgt, besteht aus zwei auf der Medianliuic des Rückens verschmolzenen, oberen
Seitenschildcrn, deren Stacheln wie die der gewohnlichen Schilder beschallen sind. Auch die
zugespitzte, nach unten gerichtete Fläche, die sich an den Körper legt, ist vorhanden. Dann
aber tritt noch jederseits vorn ein schräg nach unten verlaufender Teil hinzu, der sich mit dem
die Brustllossc tragenden Stück (i. c. the clavicle) verbindet. Nach vorn spitzt sich die Rücken-
fläche dieses ganzen Schildes zu und läuft in drei kleine Fortsätze aus, vor welchen die
Nackenscliilder mit ihren Erhebungen liegen. '"

DuNCKEii (13, )). 21) correctly says that "Das slark bewehrte Pränuchale von Hippocam-
jms wird als Corona bezeichnet"; but he only mentions a Pränuchale and a Nuchale in
Lophobranchs generally.

22 p. .309 [4.3]. The ])rcsencc of the pscudobranchia in the Sijminathidœ has often been
denied or overlooked. Thus Meckel (35, 6. vol., p. 181) and Kroyek :,29, p. 679) deny its existence,
while Retzius, Kaup, Günther, Duméisil, Ryder, Moheau, Lii.l.ieborc, Jordan and f;vermann,
HuoT, perhaps still more authors, do not mention it at all. But already 1841 JoH. Müleeh
(37, p. 78) stated regarding ü\e Lophobranchii: "Haben einige Federchen einer Nebenkiemc
vor dem ersten Kiemenbogen. Untersucht wurden die Gattungen Si/ngnaihus Linn., Hippo-
campus C."

Solenostomus.

23 p. 311 [45]. Only some of the cutaneous papillæ ou llie snout have been observed by
previous authors, and only by the older, while later authors do not mention them. The
mandibular barbel at the chin seems not at all to have been noticed.

Sera (51, p. 106) in his definition of Solenostomus (paradoxus) says: "Solenostomus
varius, roslro cirralo; pinnis dorsali el ventralibus prælongis" (or in Dutch: "Bonte Sole-

93 3i'!)

nostomus, met een .i(el);iar(leii siiiiit, en zeer hnii;e iiiji- en buiUvinnen ; and Ihe deseriplion
1. c. p. 107 rnns: "Inia rostri seile, per lotani ejus lonf>ilndincni, se\ paria ni.L(rieanliiini eirro-
runi aiit barbnlarum propendenl. Pari poslrenio oenli superininiinent" in Duteli: "Aan hel
ondereinde van den sniiit lani^s deszelvs lengte hangen 15 paar swartagtige baardljes af.
Booven hct agterste paar staan de oogen ").

Pallas (39, p. 33) " roulriim sublus longitudinaliter hieoslaUim & ramcnlonim

nigrorum tribus ])aribus æquidistantibus barbatuni." His tig. 6 on Tab. IV is bad enough bul
better than that of Seba; it shows 3 pairs of lilaments below the snout but the hinder pair
at some distance in front of the level of the eye. The slender shape of the snout and of the
caudal peduncle ("Pone hos processus ;i. e. the "hump" for 1)2 and A] cauda adtenuatior '
etc.) ])roves sufficiently that his s|)ecies really must be our Solen, paradoxus.

Bleekek (2 a, p. 308) describing "Solenostoma paradoxum" = our S. ci]anopleius does not
mention any cutaneous filaments; but later (2b, p. 52) he states for "Solenostoma paradoxum
Lacép. Rafin. ' = our S. paradoxus: "... rostro acuto ... sextuple longiore quam parte gracil-
lima alto, inferne multici rrato."

Kaui' (25, ]). 2) says about his "Solenostomus jjaradoxus '; "Some of the specimens have
little skinny lags round the mouth and rostral tube, as re|)resented in Pallas's figure." Of the
5 s])ecimens known to Kaup, and by him called S. i)aradoxus (which all belong to the Mu-
seum of Paris), 3 are Sol. ciianopterus and 2 Sol. paradoxus.

2-1 p. 31() [50]. Information about the vertebral column is only given by Güntheh, Bol'-
LENc.EU and Re(;an

GONTiiEii (16 b, p. 151): "The vertebral column is composed of eighteen abdominal and
fifteen caudal vertebræ, the vertebne gradually decreasing in length backwards, so that the
shortness of the tail is caused not only by the smaller number of vertebræ, but also by their
much lesser length. Neural and hæmal spines are developed." Hi:c.an (45 c. p. 8): "The præ-
caudal vertebræ have short transverse processes and the caudal vertebræ are much abbre-
viated; ribs are absent." BovLEN(iEii (4 c, p. 633): "Anterior vertebræ elongate, without trans-
verse processes; no ribs.'

'^■> 1). 317 [51]. DiMKHii. (12 b, p. 496) incorrectly stales: "les rayons de toutes les
nageoires non articulés."

Aboul the number of lin ra\s in the vcntrals and first dorsal most authors agree;
only Bleeker gives for S. cijanopterus V = ll, presumably having counted some of the
bifurcated rays as two rays, and DuMÉiui. gives 8 rays in the ventrals of the male S. para-
doxus. That Skis.\ gives 4 rays in the first dorsal, together with other ap|)arenl mistakes,
I think is due to the bad stale of his single, dried, specimen, which his figure clearly
proves. The number 16, which without excejition 1 have found in my si)ecimens, I think
will prove to be the normal number. I hardly believe that a variation between 12 and 20,
as the table on p. 323 [57] shows, would be possible, where a caudal fin is developed and
enlarged to such a degree, as is the case in the present genus. In the other fins, where
the number (d' fin-rays are greater and their stiucturc weaker, the numbers ai)parently vary
slightly.

-'■' |). .519 ;53j. Bori.ENiiEl! (4 c, p. 633) stales: "no præoperculum; sympleclic elongale ', the
only remarks aboul cranial structures found in the literature.

-'' p. 319 [53]. GCNTHEii (16 b, p. 150) stales for the whole Order V. Lophobranchii, com-
jirising Solenostomidav "Gill-cover reduced to a large simple plate." A. S. Woodwahd (59.
p. 379) for Solcu.: "Opercular apparatus reduced to operculum and very few branchiostegal
rays." .\1sü Johdan and Snydeu (22, p. 3) repeat for the Lophobranchs: "Gill covers reduced
to a large simple plate. '

360 94

28 p. 319 [53]. ("iC'NTHEU (16 1j, p. 151); "Hi;nulii<islc't^;ils lour, very lliin. The s:mK' is
repealed l)y Jordan and Snydeh (22, i). 3).

^■' p. 321 [55]. (". T.\i'K Rkc.vn (451), p. 79) say.s: "])eel()ral arch normally attached to skull;
posl-leniporal and supraeleithruni similar to slellate ossllications on body"; and later (45 c,
J). S): "The membrane Ixines ol the i)eetoral arcli are a trifurcate po-st-temporal, loosely
attaciied lo the cranium, a supra-clavicle, and a clavicle. The pteryf^ials are four in number,
rather lar.!<e, but very thin and similar lo Ibose of Syn.^nathus as fij^ured by Parker."

30 p. 322 [56]. GCntiiici! (16 b, p. 151); "The i)e!vis consists of two |)airs of cartilaginous
lamina% the convex margin of the anterior lltling into an angle of a dermal bone which
separates the pelvis from the well-ossihed humeral arch."

31 J). 325 [59]. AI)oul llie gill-apparatus the only previous statements are the following;
GüNTIlEI! (16 b, p. 151); "pseudo])ranchi:e absent"; Boui.liNGEU (4c, i).633); "gill-lamellæ

.small rounded lobes"; Regan (45 b, p. 79); 'gills lobate", and (45 c, p. 8); "The gill-fringes are
reduced in number and thickened."

32 p, 326 [fiOJ. Altout the alimentary Iracl I'ai.las says (39, p. 35); "Vciilricitln.s vcsicularis.
CdiKilis alinu'iihiriiis ami)lus, ;ec|uabilis, fere recta a venli-iculo ad anum deductus. Hepar
(Icxterius, sul) initio canalis alimenlarii ' (ItNTHEP. (16 b, p. 151); "Intestinal tract very simple",
with a stomachic dilatation, without pyloric api)en(lages. '

3S p. :f21 [61]. Pai.las (39, p. 35); ''(JiHiriiiin posterius duplex, ad dorsum longitudinalia,
lineai-ia, in anum terminata; referla ovulis llavescentibus, (/raiio piipauerco sicco fere a'lpia-
libus." (',Cniiii:i! (16 1), p. 151) only remarks; "Ova very small." The ova preserved in the
ventral i)ouch of mv si)ecimen of .S. panidaxiis measure 0,64—0,69 mm . and they have been
partly dried.

LITERATURE CITED.

1. Agassiz, L. : Recherches sur les Poissons fossiles. T. 2, T. 4. 1833 — 43.

2 a. Bi.EEKER, P.: Bijdrage tot de Kennis der Ichthyologische Fauna van de Moluksche Eilanden. Vissclien

van Aniboina en Ceram. Xatuurkundig Tijdschrift voor Nederlandsch Indie. .Jaarg. 3.

1852.
2 b. Vijfdc bijdrag tot de kennis der Ichthyologische F'auna von Amboina. Ibid. .Ig. 0. 18,')4.

3. BoiiCH (BoiiiiicHii s), O.: Aci marini anatome. Thoniæ Bartholini Ada medica et philosophica Haf-

niensia Anni 1673. Vol. 2. 1675.
4 a. Bori.ENGEii, G. A. : Notes on the Classification of Teleostean Fishes. III. Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist. (7.)

Vol. 10. 1902.
4 b. — A Synopsis of the Suborders and Families of Teleostean Fishes. Ibid. (7.) Vol.13. 1904.
4 c. — Systematic account of Telcostei in the Cambridge Natural History. 1904.
5. Bridge. T. W.: The Mesial Fins of Ganoids and Teleosts. Journ. Linn. Soc. Lond. Zool. Vol. 25.

1896
fia. BitiHi,, B. C. : Anfangsgründe der vergleichenden Anatomie aller Thierklassen. With Atlas. 1847.
Ob. — Osteologisches aus dem Pariser Pflanzengarten. 185ü.

7. BuRNE, R. H.: The Anatomy of the Olfactory Organ of Teleostean Fishes. Proc. Zool. Soc. London.

1909.

8. Cope, E. D.: Contribution to the Ichthyology of the Lesser Antilles. Transact. American Phil. Society.

Vol. 14. (N. S.) Part 3. 1871.
9a. CiîviEii, G.: Le Regne Animal distribué d'après son organisation. Vol. 2. 1817.
9 b. — Leçons d'Anatomie comparée. Seconde édition. T. 1. 1835; T. 2. 1837; T. 7. 1840.

10. CuviER et V.\LENCiENNEs: Histoire naturelle des Poissons. T. 1. 1828.

11. Dareste, C. : Études sur les ostéologiques des poissons osseux. Comptes rendus Acad. Se. Paris.

T. 75. 1872.
12 a. Dii.MÉBii., Aug. : Les Lophobranehes. Mémoires de la Société impériale des Sciences naturelles de

Cherbourg. T. 15. (2it'i"e Série, Tome 5.) 1869 70.
12 b. — Histoire naturelle des Poissons. Tome 2. (Suites à Buffon.) 1870.
13. DuNCKF.R, G. : Syngnathiden-Studien. 1. Mitteil, aus dem Naturhist. Museum in Hamburg. 25. (2.

Beiheft zum .lahrb. der Hamb wisseusch. Anstalten. 25.1 1908.
14a. GiM., Th.: On the mutual relations of the Hemibranchiatc Fishes. Proc. Acad. Nat. Sciences of

Philadelphia. 1884.
14 1). The differential characters of the Syngnathid and Hippocampid Fishes. Proc. U. S. Nat. Mus.

\'oI. 18. 1895.
14c. The life history of the Sea-Horses (Hippocarapidsi. Ibid. Vol.28. 1905.

15. Goodrich, E. S. : Cyclostomes and Fishes. 1st Fasc. of Vertebrata craniata in Sir Ray Lankcster's

A Treatise on Zoology. 1909.
16 a. Gi'NTHER, A.: Catalogue of the Acanthopterygian Fishes in the Brit. Mus. \'()l. 3. 1861.
16b. Catalogue of Fishes. Vol.8. 1870.

16 c. Report on the Shore Fishes procured during the Voyage of H. M. S. Challenger. B|). Sc. Res.

of the Voyage of H. M. S. Challenger. Zoology. Vol. 1. 1880.
17. Hii.GEMiOME, F.: Jugendcharakter der Fischgattung Fistulaiia. Sitzungsberichte der Gcscllscli.

naturforschender Freunde zu Berlin. 1877.

362 96

18. Hoi.i.Aiii), H.: Coup d'œil sur l'ordre des Ganoïdes, et recherches sur les caractères des I.oplio-

branches, pour déterminer leur véritable afiinités zoologiques. Comptes rend. Ac. Sc.

Paris. T. 31. 18,->0.
Ii1. HuoT, A.: Recherches sur les Poissons Lophobraiiclies. Ami. se. nat. Zool. et Paléontol. S. Série.

T. 14. 1902.
2(t a. Hyrti., J. ; Beiträge zur Morphologie der Urogenital-Organe der Fische. Denkschriften d. I<. Akad.

d. Wissenschaften in Wien. Math.-naturw. Cl. 1. 15d. 1850.
•>i)b. Das uropoctische S3'steni der Knochenfische. Ibid. 2. |}d.

21 a. .loiinAN, D. St. and Evermann, B. W.: The Fishes of Nortli and Middle America. Part 1. Bull. U.S.

Nat. Mus. No. 47. 1896.
21 I). .loiiDAN, D. St. and Evrrmann : The Aquatic Hesources of the Havaiian Islands. Prt. 1. Tbc Slmrc-

Fishes. Bull. U. S. Fish Comm. Vol. 23 for 1903. 1905.
22. Jordan, D. St. and Snyder, J.O.: A review of the Hj'postomide and Lophobranchiate F^ishes of

Japan. Proc. U. S. National Mus. \'ol. 24. 1901.
23 a. JiiNC.KiisEN, H. V. E.: Bidrag til Kundskaben om Kjonsorganernes Udvikling hos Benfiskene. VidensU.

Medd. Nat. Foren. Kjobenhavn. 1889. Translated in: Arbeiten aus dem Zool.-Zooto-

mischen Institut in Würzburg. Bd. 9. 1890.
23 b. — Ichthyological Contributions. (Amphisile and Ccntriscus.) Kgl. Danske Vidensk. Selsk. Skr.

7. R. Afd. VI. 2. 1908.

24. Kasanzekk: Über die Entstehung des Hantpanzers bei Syngnalhus acus. Zool. Anzeiger. 30. Bd.

1906.

25. Kaup, J. J.: Catalogue of Lophobranchiate Fish in the Collection of the Brit. Museum. 1856.

26a. v. Klein: Beiträge zur Osteologie der Fische. Jahreshefte des Vereins für vaterländische Natur-
kunde in Württemberg. 37. Jahrgang, 1881.

26 b. — Beiträge zur Bildung des Schädels der Knochenfische. 1. Ibid 40. Jahrg. 1884.

26 c. ^ . _ . - - II. 41. - 1885.

27. Ki.iiNZiNGEH, C. B. : Sj'nopsis der Fische des Rothen Meeres. 2. Theil. Verb. zool. -botan. Gesellscluift
Wien. 21. Bd. 1871.

28 a. Knkii, R.: (Dorsal fin as locomotor apparatus in Sj'ngnatbida».) Verhandl. Zool. -Botan. Verein. Wien.
5. Bd. 1855.

28 b. — Über den Flossenbau der Fische. II. Sitzungsber. der kaiserl. Akademie der Wissensch. Wien.
42. Bd. 1861.

29. Kröver, H.: Danmarks Fiske. 3. Bd. 1846-53.

30. KÖSTMN, O.: Der Bau des knöchernen Kopfes in den vier Klassen der Wirbelthiere. 1844.

31. Lacépède: Histoire naturelle des Poissons. 3. Vol. 10. Vol. (Ed. in 12"). 1803.

32. LiLLJEBORG, W. : Sveriges och Norges Fiskar. 3. Delen. 1891.

33. Li'TKEN, Chr. Fr. ; Spolia Atlantica. Bidrag til Kundskab om Formforandringer hos Fiske etc.

Kgl. Danske Vidensk. Selsk. Skr. 5. Række, naturv. og matheni. Afd. 12, 6. 1880.

34. Mc. Murrich, J. Pi.avpair: On the Osteology and Development of Syngnathus Peckianus (Storcr).

Q. Journ. Mier. Se. (N. S.) Vol. 23. 1883.

35. Meckel, I. F. : System der vergleichenden Anatomie. Zweiter Theil, erste Abtb. 1824. 6. Tluil. 183.'i.

36. Morkau, E. : Histoire naturelle des Poissons de la F^rance. T. 2. 1881.

37. Müi.i.ER, Johannes: Vergleichende Anatomie der My.xinoidcn. 3. F^ortsetz. AbbdI. d. Köni.nl. Aka

demie d. Wissensch. Berlin. 1841.

38. Owen, R. : On the Anatomy of Vertebrates. Vol. 1. 1866.

39. Pai.i.as, P.S.: Spicilegia zoologica, quibus novæ imprimis et obscuræ animalium species iconibus,

descriptionibus atque commentariis illustrantur'. VIII. 1770.

40. Parker, W. K.: A monograph on the structure and development of the Shoulder-girdle and Ster-

num in the Vertebrata. Ray Society. 1868.

41. Peters, W. : Naturwissenschaftliebe Reise nach Mossambique. Zoologie. IV. Flussfische. 1868.

42. Pi.AYFAiR, R. L. and Ginther. A.: Fishes of Zanzibar. 1866.

43. PoucMET, (î. : Du développement du squelette des Poissons osseux. Journ. de l'Anat. et de la l'hysiol.

14. Année. 1878.

363 97

44. Uathkk, H.: Aiiatoniisch-philosophische Untersuchuiigeii über dc-ii KUmcnapparat und das Ziiiij<en-

l)ein der Wirbelthiere. 1832.
45 a. Regan, C Täte : Biologia Centrali-Americana. Pi.sces. 190(1 — 08.
45b. — Tlie Classification of Teleostean Fisbes. Ann. and Mag. of Natural History Ser. 8. Vol.3.

1909.
45 c. — Notes on tbe Classification of the Teleostean Fishes. The scventli International Zoological

Congress. Boston Meeting 1907. 1910.
40. Retzius, a.; Anatomisk undersökning öfver några delar af Syngnathus Acus ocli Ophidion. Kongl.

Vetenskaps Acadeniiens Handlingar for 1833. (1834).

47. Ro.sEN THAI., Fr. : Ichtbyotomiscbe Tafeln. Erste Lief., 2. Heft. 1810.

48. Ryder, ,I. A.: A contribution to tlie Development and Morphology of tbe Lophobranchiatcs: (Hippo-

campus autitjuorum, tbe Sea-Horse). Bull. U. S. Fish Commission. 1881 (1882|.

49. .Schneider, ,Ioh. G. : Petri Artedi .Synonymia Piscium Græca et Latina emendata aucta et illustrata.

1 789.
60. Sc.h.ïee, E. : Untersuchungen über das Integument der Lopbobrancbicr. Inaugural-Dissertation. Kiel.
1880.

51. Seba, Alb. : Locupletissimi rerum naturalium thesauri accurata descriptio et iconibus artificiosissi-

mis expressio per univcrsam physices historiam. Vol. 3. 1758.

52. Second, D.: Des affinités squelettiques des poissons. Journ. de I'Anat. et de la Phyniol. 9. année.

1873.

53. Siebenrock, Fr.: Über die Verhindungsweise des Schultergürtels mit dem Schädel bei den Teleo-

.steern. Eine morphologische Studie. Ann. des k. k. naturhistorischen Hofmuseums.
Bd. 10. 1901.

54. Smitt, E. A.: Skandinaviens Fiskar. 2. Del. 1895. (Fishes of Scandinavia. 2nd Vol. 1895.)

55. Starks, E. Ch.: The shoulder girdle and characteristic osteology of the Hemibranchiate Fishes.

Proc. U. S. National Museum Vol. 25. 1902.
50 a. SwiNNERTON, H. H. : A contribution to the Morphology of the Teleostean Head Skeleton, based upon

a Study of the Developing Skull of the Three-spined Stickleback {Gasterosteiis aculeatus}.

Quarterly Journ. Micr. Sc. (New Series.) Vol. 45. 1902.
50 b. — Pectoral Skeleton of Teleosts. Quarterly Journ. Micr. Se. (N. S.) Vol. 49. Pt. 2. 1905.

57. Tanaka, Shigeho: Descriptions of eight new Species of Fishes from Japan. Annotationes zoologicæ

Japonenses. Vol. 7. Part 1. 1908.

58. Winther, G.: Bidrag til Fiskeskjæltændernes Morphologi og Udviklingshistorie. Naturhistorisk

Tidsskrift. 3. R. 8. Bd. 1873.

59. Woodward, A. S.: Catalogue of the Fossil Fisbes in the Brit. Mus. Vol. 4. 1901.

b. K. D. Vidensk Selsk.Skr.. 7. R:ekke. naturviilensk. og in;itlieni. Afil. Vlll. ."i. 47

List of reference letters.

Skull,

al ; alisplienoid
ao", ao', ao: preorbifals

eo: exoccipital

ep: epiotic

f: frontal

mes: mesethmoid

na: nasal

ob: basioccipital

pa: parasphenoid

pf: postfrontal

prf: prefrontal

pro: prootie

pt: posttemporal

so: supraoccipital

sq: pterotic (squamosal)

vo: vomer

Mouth parts,
an : angular
ar: articular
(I : dcntary

i: intermaxilla
mx : maxilla

Suspensoi'v ii|i|i:u'alus.
ect : ectopterygoid
ept : entopterygoid

by: hyomandibular

mt: metapterygoid

pa: palatine
pro: preoperciilum

qu: quadrate

sy: symplectic

Opercular apparatus,
io: interoperculuni
o: operculum
s: suboperculum

Hvoid. '
ch: ceratohyal
eh: epibyal
gl : glossohyal

liy': lower hj'poliyal
liy": upper hypohyal

r: branchiostegal ray
st: stylohyal

u: urohyal

Hraiirliial skeleton.
1— V: gill-arches

c: ceratobranchial
co: copula (basibraiichial)

e: epibranchial
liy: hypobranchial
ph : pharjngohranchial

Slioulrter-girdle aud pectoral arcl
ba: basais (pterygials)
cl : clavicle
co: coracoid
pel : postclaviclc
pt: posttemporal
sc: scapula
sel : supraclavicular

Plate I.

l'lale I.

(Fur letters see List p. 364 [i)8].)

Figs. 1^4; Aiilostoma coloralum.

Fig. 1: Skull from left side. *: knob for attachment of ossified tendon.

— 2: Skull from above.

— 3 : Skull from below.

— 4: Skeleton of head from left side.

Figs. 5 — (i: Fisliilaria iubacarut.

Fig. 5 : Skeleton of head from left side.

— 6: Skull from above, k: rugosit}' for attachment of ligament to first vertebra (cfr. p. 28!) [23])

Figs. 7-8: Fistiilaria petimba.

Fig. 7: Skull from below. 1: lamelliform process from parasphenoid.

— 8: Front view of posterior wall of orbit, i^'rontals and parasphenoid cut through transversely.

Figs. 9-10: Aiilostoma coloralum.

Fig. 9. Anterior four coalesced vertebræ and foremost free vertebræ, from below, b: articular process;
t: transverse process; "' attachment for ligament to posttemporal; n: openings for passage
of nerves and blood-vessels.
— 10: the same, from left side, n' : openings for nerves and vessels; a: anterior part of neural arch
(cfr. p. 272 [6]).

Fig. 1 1 : Fisliilaria pelinibn.

Fig. 11: Anterior four coalesced vertebræ and foremost free vertebræ from below. *" : furrow for aorta
crossing over to left side. ': .-ittachment for ligament connected with posttemporal.

K. 1). VidcDsk. Sclsk-. Ski:. '/ H.. n-in Afd. VIII. .'> [H. /-". E. .huujersen] .

PL I.

o/' ;■■

Tili ! ,' sn

I I pil. rtfti r

P':f "^ i'f ■'!!

/'' ,ii> ril

■ji ••■ eo

/■' V!'" f%

ao livj I ,■

I I jia a/ jif SU

<-//

'J^y

Itu Vi)

/','/■

/'''■" /^'^ ^

mes rrit

//I es

! ''f -"ü '■/' ni

Autor dir, H V. \Vt7steif{!i!ir<l del.

l*nfltt & Crone pluilotyp.

Plate IL

l'lilll' 11.

(l-"or letters see List p. ;i64 lim].)

Figs. 1 — 2: Fistularia petimba.

I'"ig. 1: Pharynx partly dissected to sliow branchial skeleton; upi)er pharyngeal wall cut through along
its middle line and turned outward.
2: Upper jiart of branchial skeleton and gills, from right side.

Figs. 3 — 4: Aulosloma coloratum.

Fig. 3; Pharynx prepared in similar way as in Fig. 1, showing gill-clefts, tooth-|rlates representing gill-
rakers etc.

— 4: Upper jjarts of branchial skeleton and gills, right side, v: branchial vessels.

Figs. 5— (J : Fistularia petimba.

Fig. 5: Right hyoid, outer face, (st): stylohyal coalesced with epihyal eh.

— (i: The same, inner face.

Figs. 7 — 8: Anlostoma coloratum.

Fig. 7: Right hyoid, inner face.
— 8: The same, outer face.

Fig. 9: Fistularia petimba.

Fig. 1): Anterior part of vertebral column; left side. 1— ,"!; nuchal plates, td; ossified tendons (posterior
ends cut away).

Fig. 10: Aulostoma coloratum.

Fig. 10; Abdominal and anterior caudal verfebne; left side, a, b, t and * as in Figs. 9—10 on PI. 1;
1 — 3; nuchal plates; 4 — 16; interspinous bones; s: spinous rays of dorsal fin.

/v. 1). Vidcnsk. Selsk. Skr., ; H., n-m Åfd. VIII. .', [H. F. E. .Innuersen].

PL II.

1 ■' N

fllt

I"-'

V-'

■ 4

/,V__.

-i^-^

ilV^—- -^

•,\\jMV. i"-/"'''^

VJ" t- ■-■'

j-/-

4i^^^ê^^^^^^-

-•^ç^

=^îsi^-îîF^^fag^^j?^t^^#

Aulnr (iir. H V. WL-sU'ij^iUird ilel.

l'nclit & (Iront' iihototyp.

Plate III.

(For letters see I,ist p. :i64 [98].)

Figs. 1—2: Siplionostoma typlile.

Fig. 1 : Left shoulder-girdle and pectoral arch, anterior vertebræ and part of dermal skeleton; inner side.
1 — III: anterior vertebræ; t: transverse processes; ml, il: median and inferior lateral plates ;
j: jugular plate; o: outer, i: inner fork of clavicle; co' : posterior part of coracoid.

— 2: Same parts, outer aspect, n": prenuchale; n: nuchale; si, ml, il: superior, median and inferior

lateral plates; c: cover plate: J: jugular plate; i: intermedial scutes; p, p' : processes of
clavicle cl.

Fig. 3 : Hippocampus sp.

Fig. '.i: Left slioulder-girdle and anterior part of dermal armour; outer aspect n' : "corona" (prenuchale);
n" : posterior nuchale; 1. body of foremost vertebra; v: ventral dermal plates.

Figs. 4 — 5 : Aiilostoma coloratum.

Fig. 4: Left shoulder girdle, without posttemporal; outer aspect.

— 5: Tlie same, inner aspect, f: opening between inner (i) and outer (o) fork of clavicle and cora-

coid (eo).

Figs. 6—7: Siphonostoina typhle (jiiv.).

Fig. (i : Left shoulder girdle and pectoral fin; inner aspect.

— 7: The same; outer aspect.

Figs. 8 — 9: Fistulariu petiinba.

Fig. S: Left shoulder girdle, from inner side; without supraclavicular and ))osttemporal; i, o, f etc. as
in Fig. 5.

— !): The same, outer aspect.

Figs. 10 — 11: Soleiiostomiis cyuuopterus.

F'ig. Ill: Part of musculature, visceraetc. of o"- ps: Pseudobranchia; I — IV: first to fourth row of gills
o: opening between gill-chambers: c: heart; oe: oesophagus; i: intestine; r: rectum; bd
entrance of bile-duct; *,''*: comp. p. 325 [59]; I: liver; td: ossified tendon; k: kidney
bl: air-bladder; te: testis.
— 11: Filament (magnified) from brood-sac of 9, showing suckers on ends of branchlets; ax: bony
axis.

K. 1). Mdciisk. Sclsk. Shr.. ', II., n-iii Afd. VIII. .', /II. I-. /■; .liiii<irrs<'i>/.

f^^^ir-^^'^'

pi ! i i. ^T^

^ '^^RÄS^*J5?^ - r *

Aulor ilir. II V. \\VstiT)ia:inl del

l'iiclil Ä: CruiiL' photutyp.

Plate IV.

IM:il,- IV.

(For letters see List p. MH |98|.)

Fig. 1 : Siphonostomn lijphle.

Fig. 1: Last two abdominal and anterior caudal vertebrae with doisal and anal fins, i'loni left side;
showing interspinous bones arranged in fanshaped groups, t: transverse process: v: wing-
shaped secondary process for attachment of fin-muscles; sp: inferior spine; a: anus; between
the latter and tlie abdominal vertebræ part of viscera is seen.

Fig. 2 : Hippocampus breuirostris.
Fig. 2: Corresponding part to that of Fig. 1, from left side.

Figs. 3 — 4: Siphonostoma typhle.

Fig. 8: Anterior three vertebræ, from below (much enlarged); a; articular process, connecting with
skull; t: transverse process.

— 4; The same, from left side.

Fig. 5 : Syngnathus acus.

Fig. .') : Anterior three vertebræ, from left side, n: nucliale in situ ipart of the laterally' e.vpandcd plate
cut away).

Figs. 6 — 11: Siphonostoma typhle.

Fig. () : Last abdominal vertebra, from right side, i, i : incisions in spinous process, for insertion of
interspinous bones. Other letters as in Fig. 1.

— 7: The same from above.

— 8; First caudal vertelira, from left side, i: interspinous bone; u: its terminal upper end; e; bony

expansion just below the latter.

— 9: The same, seen from behind, ia : inferior (open) arch. Other letters as in Fig. 8.

— 10: Last caudal vertebra, left side, h^ h„: upper and lower hypural bones.

— 11: Coalesced interspinous bones for anal fin with cartilages removed (much enlarged), e: bonj'

expansions for connection with dermal scutes, originating just over terminal end u.

Fig. 12: Nerophis œqiioreus.

Fig. I'i: Three groups of interspinous bones for dorsal fin, fnim above; showing lateral bonj" expansions
(e) on the left side, and on the right side the same overlapped by the superior lateral (si)
and upper intermedial scutes (ii. The posterior 3 interspinous bones belong to one vertebra;
the 2 other groups each of 4 interspinous bones are supported eacli ))y one vertebra, the
smaller interncurals connected with the intermedial scutes i Ijeing the hindmost of each
group, u: terminal end of interspinous bones.

K. D. Vidfnsk. Selsk. Skr., ; H., n-iu Af<l. VIII. .". ///. I'. K. Jiinncr.scn/.

PI. n-

^';,Vy^-

..A^^.f.

SSSWïi

fTT/--'

-i

Autor dir. H. V Wcster^nnrd del.

l'jiL'lit & OoiU' phololyp.

Plate V.

I'lalfi V.

(Kor letters see List p. .'ilU |!t8|.)

Figs. 1 — 5: Siphonosioma tijphle.

Fig. 1 : Sliull from above (magnified), c : snout-cartilage.

— 2 : Tlie same from below.
- 3 : Skull from Ijehind.

— 4: Head skeleton from left side. Entopterygoid (ept) aiul preorbitals (ao' ao) are removed a little

from contact with the cranial beak.

— 5: Mouth-parts, suspensory and opercular parts and h void from right side, inner aspect. I: liga-

ment between symplectic (sj') and styloliya): li: ligament between angular (an) and inter-
operculum (io); li': ligament between interoperculum and liyoid |h|. Througli the trans-
parent interoperculnm (io) the skeletal parts covered In' the lattci- are visible.

Figs. 6 — 7 : Hippocampus brevirostris.

Fig. (i: Skull from left side. *; groove for attachment of nuchal tendon; p: branch of posttemporal (pt)
connecting with exoccipital (eo).

— 7: Suspensory parts and preorbitals from left side, outer aspect.

Fig. 8 : Phifllopteryx foliatiis.
Fig. 8: Head-skeleton from left side, g: gill-opening; h: hjoid ; u: urohyal.

Fig. 9: Nerophis ophidion.

Fig. i): Head-skeleton from right side, n': preuuchale; t; ossified tendon of nuchal muscles; x: dermal
plates.

Fig. 10: Nerophis œquoreus.

Fig. 10: Head-skeleton fi-om right side, x: as in the preceding figure; h: lij'oid ; u: urohyal.

K. I). Vklcnsk. Sclsk. Skr.. ', li., ii-iii .[fd. MII. :, ///, /■' /■; Jiiiun'rsrn]

Alitor «lir. H. V. Westerj^iiard «Icl.

Piii'Iil & Cr'Diif pluilotyp.

Plate VI.

l'lale VI.

(Kor Idlers sec Lisi \>. :!(i4 |!i.S|.|

Fig. 1 : Siphonostomu lijphlc.

Kig. 1 : H3-oid and phar^'iix showing ^'ill-elefts and l)rancl)ial slseleton, from right side. Knds of hianelii-
ostegal ra3's (r) eut awaj-.

Figs. 2 3: Solenostomus cyanoptenis.

Kig. 2: Hyoid and branchial skeleton from left side, outer aspect.

— 3: Left hyoid, inner aspect.

Figs. 4 — 5: Siphonostoiiid iijphle.

Kig. 4: Right hyoid, inner aspect. Greater part of branchiostegal rays cut away.

— 5: The same, outer aspect.

Kig. (1

— 7

— 8

— 9

Figs. 6 — 9 : Solenostomus cijunopterus.

Left maxilla inferior, outer aspect.

Upper pharyngeals from right side, lower aspect.

The same, from above.

Hranchial skeleton. Upper pharyngeals showing lower face (comp. Kigs. 1 and 3 on Pi. 11).

Fig. 1Ü: Siphonostoma lijphle.

Kig. 10: Pharynx and branchial skeleton, prepared in a similar way as Kigs. 1 and :!, PI. II.

Fig. 1 1 : Hippocampus longirostris.

Kig. 1 1 : Hranchial skeleton, prepared as the preceding.

Fig. 12: Nerophis œqiioreus.
Kig. 12: Hyoid and branchial skeleton, prepared as in Kigs. 10 and IL

Ä. 1). Vidensk. Selsk. Skr.. ', H.. n-m Afd. VIII. ."> ///. /•". /•;. .Inn<i,-rsen].

PI. VI.

-]-nf^

Aulor »iir. H. \'. Wcslcrt^uaril del.

Pacht ("t Crone phototvp.

Plate VIL

l'l.-llc VII.

(Kor letters see List p. 3G4 [98|.)

Figs. 1 — 2: Fistiilaria labacaria.

Fig. 1: Young Fistularia of 43 mm. lengtli (without the caudal tilament). v : rudiment of ventral tin.
2: Part of skin of the same, moie strongly magnified, showing dermal hooklets. v: ventral fin.

Figs. 3—6: Solenostomiis cganopterus J".

Fig. li: Skeleton, from left side. Operculum and shoulder-girdle (except posttemporal) removed; 1 — III:
anterior three immovable vertebræ; o: indication of opening between branchial cavities;
p: pubic bone; cr: muscular crest on the same; * lower posterior part of pelvis.

— 4: Left shoulder-girdle and pectoral arch, inner aspect; without posttemporal and supraclaviculai-.

p and p" : processes on clavicle (comp. Figs. 1, 2. 3, (i and 7 on PI. III).

— 5: Left shoulder-girdle and pectoral fin, outer aspect.

— 6: cJ, showing dermal skeleton, nasal organ, operculum (o) and suboperculum (s), branchiostegal

ray (r) etc. 1 - V: superior row of unpaired median scutes; 1 — IV: lower row of unpaired
scutes; I li : members of the thoracic transverse rows of scutes.

1), rUlensk: Selsk. Skr.. 7 U.. nm Afd. VIII, ■'> /II- /'. i'. .Iuniiers,-nj.

I'l. VII.

•«Iw.llr, II V. Wt-slCTBTOi-.

ostiTfJnai-tl del.

I'in'lil s i'.inne ptiolulM».

SIMPLE CYKLISKE KURVER

C. JUEL

D. Kgl. Danske Vidensk. Sei.sk. Skrifter, 7. Række, naturvidensk. og matem. Afd. VIII. li

■■<.)*?!(î«<:>-«-

KØBENHAVN

HOVEDKOMMISSIONÆK: ANDR. FRED. HØST & SØN, KGL. HOF-BOGHANDEL
BIANCO LUNOS BOGTRYKKERI

1911

368 4

En cyklisk Kurve af anden Orden, der ligger helt i det endelige, skal kaldes
en cyklisk Ellipse. Har Kurven uendelig fjerne Punkter, vil vi for Kortheds
Skyld kalde den en cyklisk Hyperbel eller Parabel, eftersom de uendelig
fjerne Punkter er adskilte eller sammenfaldne.

En cyklisk Kurve af tredie eller fjerde Orden kan have ét men ogsaa kun ét
Dobbeltpunkt. Vi vil først betragte de Kurver, der hverken har Dobbeltpunkt eller
noget uendelig fjernt Punkt.

Det første, vi vil søge at bestemme, er Kurvens Toppunkter d. v. s. de Punkter,
hvor Krumningscirklerne har Røring af tredie Orden med Kurven. Disse Punkter
har i flere Henseender særlig Interesse. Saaledes ved man fra bekendte infini-
tesimalgeometriske Undersøgelser, der bygger paa de samme Forudsætninger som
de her benyttede, at de firpunktsrørende Cirkler giver Maxima og Minima af
Krumningsradierne. Ligeledes véd man sammesteds fra, at disse Krumningscirklers
Centrer vil være Spidser paa Kurvens Evolut.

For at bestemme Toppunkterne bemærkes, at Krumningscirklen i et Punkt R
desuden skærer Kurven i ét og kun ét Punkt P; de søgte Punkter er de, hvor R
og P falder sammen. For at kunne bestemme Antallet af Sammenfaldspunkter,
maa vi først finde, hvorniange Punkter R der svarer til et givet P. For at se det,
er det simplest at invertere den givne Kurve ;- med P som Inversionscentrum.
Derved gaar ;-, hvad enten den er af 2den, 3die eller 4de Orden, aabenbart over i en
Kurve af 3die Orden. Udelukkes de ovenfor nævnte Tilfælde, har denne intet
Dobbeltpunkl og derfor tre Vendetangenter. Man ser heraf, at der gennem hvert
Punkt P af Kurven 7- gaar 3 oskulerende Cirkler, der berører udenfor P, d. v. s. til
hvert Punkt P svarer 3 Punkter R. For nu at kunne anvende det grafiske Korre-
spondanceprincip, maa man sikkre sig, at R og P løber i modsatte Retninger paa
Kurven. Dette ses ved følgende Hjælpesætning :

Af to oskulerende Cirkler, hvis Centrer er forbundne ved en
endelig Bue af Evoluten, der ikke indeholder nogen Spids, maa den
ene ligge helt inden i den anden.

Differensen mellem de to Cirklers Radius er nemlig lig med den Bue af Evo-
luten, der ligger mellem Centrerne og ikke indeholder nogen Spids, men denne
Bue er større end sin Korde d. v. s. end Cirklernes Centerlinie.

Lad nu y^ og ^-g være to oskulerende Cirkler, af hvilke j-^ omslutter ;-.,. Idet
ingen af disse er firpunktsrørende. vil Kurven ;- i Røringspunkt R^ eller /?, med
en af disse Cirkler gaa fra den ydre til den indre Side eller omvendt. Vi lader nu
et Punkt M gennemløbe y saaledes at det i R^ udefra gaar ind i y^. Vi kan end-
videre antage ;-j og j-, valgte saa nær ved hinanden, at M ved at fortsætte sin
Bevægelse paa ;- i samme Retning naar R,, inden det naar noget af de enkelte
Skæringspunkter P^ og P„ mellem ;- og henholdsvis y^ og y^. M maa nu ved
denne Bevægelse naa P,, inden det naar Pj, thi ;-, ligger indeni y^. Paa ;- følger altsaa
Punkterne R^R, P.Pi paa hinanden i denne Orden; da der til en lille BueR^Rn maa
svare en lille Bue Pj P.^, maa derfor RogP bevæge sig i modsatte Retninger paa y.

5 369

Nu giver Korrespondanceprincippet :

(2) En cyklisk Kurve, der hverken har noget Dobbeltpunkt eller gaar
i det uendelige, har altid 4 Toppunkter.

Toppunkterne kan ogsaa bestemmes paa en anden Maade som Sammenfalds-
punkter, nemlig mellem Røringspunkterne for en dobbelt berørende Cirkel til
Kurven. Lad en Cirkel berøre denne i M og skære den i ATj ; Cirklen vil da skære
endnu en Gang i et Punkt N.^. Holdes M fast, medens N^ varierer, vil ogsaa N,
variere, og det er let at se f. Eks. ved Inversion med Hensyn til M, at N^ og iV,
bevæger sig i modsatte Retninger. Der findes altsaa to Sammenfald. Af disse vil
det ene falde i et uendelig fjernt Punkt, naar Kurven berører den uendelig fjerne
Linie — den cykliske Parabel. Da de to Sammenfaldspunkter N, der svarer
til samme M, aldrig kan falde sammen, fordi Kurven er cyklisk, har man altsaa:

(3) Til enhver cyklisk Kurve findes to adskilte Systemer af dobbelt-
rørende Cirkler, undtagen ved den cykliske Parabel, hvor der kun
findes ét System.

Den sidste Del af Sætningen følger af, at Parabelen berører den uendelig
Ijerne Linie.

Toppunkterne bestemmes ved Sammenfald mellem et Punkt M og et tilsvarende
Punkt N. Vi vil nu ikke give et nyt independent Bevis for (2), men gaa ud fra,
at der findes mindst ét Toppunkt A, og ved Hjælp deraf udlede, at M og N maa
bevæge sig i modsatte Retninger paa Kurven, saafremt denne ligger helt i det
endelige. Lad M være valgt i Nærheden af A, og lad os lægge en Cirkel, der
berører Kurven i M og desuden gaar gennem A. Det resterende Skæringspunkt A^
mellem Kurven og Cirklen maa da ligeledes ligge i Nærheden af A; lad os sige,
at M og N begge ligger i et vist Omraade cu af Kurven omgivende A. Punkterne
M og A.j maa nu i w ligge paa modsatte Sider af A.

Dette kan atter ses ved at invertere om A. Derved gaar nemlig Kurven over
i en Kurve af tredie Orden ;-', der har et uendelig fjernt Infleksionspunkt A^,
medens Cirklen gaar over i en Tangent t, der berører ;-^ i et Punkt M'-, der ligger
i Nærheden a{ AK AP og det enkelte Skæringspunkt Al mellem / og j-^ maa da
ligge paa modsatte Sider af A' i et vist Omraade af y^ omgivende A^. Inverterer
man nu tilbage, ses Paastandens Riglighed. Lad nu atter N^ og N., være de to
Skæringspunkter mellem Kurven ;- og en Cirkel, der berører denne i M. Naar AT,
bevæger sig i w fra A mod A.,, maa N., efter det tidligere bevæge sig ud fra A., i
den modsatte Retning; Sammenfaldspunktet N mellem N^ og iV., maa altsaa ligge
paa CO mellem A og A2; M og N vil derfor i m ligge paa modsatte Sider af A.
Men flytter nu M sig, maa ogsaa N flytte sig, og naar M bevarer sin Bevægelses-
retning, maa det samme være Tilfældet med iV, hvilket følger af Afhængighedens
gensidige Entydighed ; de skal endvidere falde sammen i A ; deraf følger, at M og
N bevæger sig i modsatte Retninger. Det er herved bevist, at to saadanne sammen-
hørende Punkter M og iV, der kan falde sammen i et Toppunkt, bevæger sig i
modsatte Retninger. Men ligger Kurven helt i det endelige, kan de to Punkter N,

370

der svarer til samme Punkt M, ikke falde sammen; derfor maa disse Punkler,
hvoraf hvert maa beholde sin Omløbsretning uforandret, naar M gør det, begge
bevæge sig i modsat Retning af M. Man har altsaa:

(4) De to Røringspunkter mellem Kurven og en dobbeltrørende Cirkel

i et af Systemerne bevæger sig begge i modsatte Retninger paa

Kurven, naar denne ligger helt i det endelige.

Vi vil nu opstille en Sætning, der alene gælder C3'kliske Ovaler, idet vi vil

bestemme en saadan Kurves Dobbeltnormaler. Lad en Linie n være Normal til

Ovalen i to Punkter M og P. Tangenterne i disse Punkter er da parallele. Vi betragter

derfor den Korrelation {MQ), hvor Tangenterne i tilsvarende Punkter er parallele. Den

er aabenbart (1— l)-tydig, og tilsvarende Punkter vil gaa samme Vej. Men en

Cirkel over MP som Diameter
vil være en dobbeltrørende Cir-
kel, hvis Røringspunkter er M
og P. Vi betragter derfor og-
saa Korrelationen (M N), mellem
Røringspunkterne for dobbelt-
rørende Cirkler. Den er efter
det foregaaende(2 — 2)-t3'dig saa-
ledes, at tilsvarende Punkter
løber modsat Vej. Korrelationen
(Q N) er derfor ogsaa (2 — 2)-
tydig saaledes, at tilsvarende
Punkter løber modsat Vej. Der
vil derfor findes 4 Sammen-
faldspunkter svarende til 2
Dobbeltnormaler:
(5) En cyklisk Ellipse har
to Dobbeltnormaler.
Ved den algebraiske Ellipse
gaar Dobbeltnormalerne gen-
nem Toppunkterne, men det er naturligvis i Almindelighed ikke Tilfældet.

Vi vil nu alter betragte en cyklisk Kurve af 2den eller 4de Orden, der hverken
har Dobbellpunkler eller gaar i det uendelige. Lad to Toppunkter, der paa Kurven
følger paa hinanden, være Aj og An- Glider et Punkt langs Kurven fra A^ til A„
uden at overskride de andre Toppunkter, vil de tilhørende Krumningscirkler ifølge
Hjælpesætningen Side 4 ikke kunne have noget Punkt fælles. Der vil derfor
af de Krumningscirkler, der svarer til Punkter af Buen A^ A,, højest kunne gaa
én gennem hvert Punkt af Planen. Da der nu er 4 Buer begrænsede af Toppunkter,
har man, idet man let ser, at det ikke gør noget, om der paa Buen findes Inflek-
sionspunkter:

(6) Gennem et vilkaarligt Punkt af Planen gaar højest 4 oskulerende
Cirkler til Kurven.

Fig. 1.

371

Lader vi det vilkaarlige Punkt rykke uendelig fjernt — eller erindrer vi, at den
inverse Kurve til en cyklisk Kurve atter maa være cyklisk — faas heraf:

(7) En cyklisk Kurve af fjerde Orden, der ikke gaar i det uendelige
og ikke har Dobbeltpunkter, har højest fire Infleksionspunkter.

Da en Kurve af fjerde Orden altid maa have et lige Antal Infleksionspunkter,
og en Kurve uden Infleksionspunkter under de her forudsatte Betingelser er af 2den
Orden, ser man at Kurven maa have enten 4 eller 2 Infleksionspunkter. Da disse
Infleksionspunkter maa ordne sig i Infleksionspar, følger heraf:

(8) En cyklisk Kurve af 4de Orden, der ikke gaar i det uendelige og
ikke har Dobbeltpunkter, har enten 2 eller 1 Dobbelttangent.

Vi vil nu tage Hensyn til de ovenfor udelukkede Tilfælde, nemlig at Kurven
gaar i det uendelige eller — naar Talen er om Kurver af tredie eller tjerde Orden
— at disse kan have et Dobbeltpunkt.

Lad os først betragte en cyklisk Hyperbel. Ved Inversion om et Punkt P af
selve Kurven faar man en Kurve af 3die Orden med et Dobbeltpunkt, og denne
haren Vendetangent. Forbindelsen mellem
et Kurvepunkt R og det enkelte Punkt
P, hvori Krumningscirklen i R paany
skærer Kurven, vil altsaa her være (1 — 1)-
tydig. Da man endvidere ligesom i Be-
viset for {2) ser, at fi og P maa bevæge
sig i modsatte Retninger, findes her al-
mindeligvis 2 Toppunkter. Ifald Kurven
specielt berører den uendelig fjerne rette
Linie, maa dog et af Sammenfaldspunk-
terne mellem R og P falde i det uendelig
fjerne Røringspunkt, thi den dobbelt-rcg-
nede uendelig fjerne rette Linie er en
speciel Cirkel. Man har altsaa:

(9) En cyklisk Kurve af anden Orden, der gaar i det uendelige, har
to Toppunkter, naar Kurven er en Hyperbel, men kun ét, naar den
er en Parabel.

Ved Bestemmelsen af Dobbeltnormaler maa vi erindre, at der til en Kurve
af anden Orden med to uendelig fjerne Punkter ikke gaar Tangenter i enhver
Retning. Ved de to uendelig fjærne Punkter U^ og (7, deles Kurven i to adskilte
Buer «Tj og «Tj. Lad M være et Punkt af «Tj. Den Cirkel med uendelig stor Radius,
der berører Kurven i M, vil yderligere sivære den i U^ og U., ; deraf følger, at de to
Punkter N^ og N.-,, hvori en Cirkel, der berører i M, anden Gang kan berøre Kurven,
maa ligge paa hver sin af de to Buer (TjOg (t, ; '^"l ^i l'gg^ pa^ «^u ^^ pa» <^2-

Naar M gennemløber Buen «Xj, vil Nj gennemløbe hele «ij, og naar M falder
i f/i, maa N., falde i f/,. En Cirkel, der skal skære Kurven to Gange i to sammen-
faldende Punkter, hvoraf det ene er uendelig fjernt, maa nemlig være selve den

Fig. 2.

372 8

uendelig fjerne rette Linie regnet dobbelt. NaarMaltsaa gennemløber a^ fra [/j til t/j,
maa N, gennemløbe a., fra U., til U^. Men er Tangenterne i M og O parallele, og
gennemløber M Buen a^ fra [/j til t/,, vil O aabenbart gennemløbe «t., fra t/j til [/,■
Forbindelsen mellem Q og Nj er gensidig énlydig; der finder derfor kun ét Sammen-
fald Sted o:

(10) En cyklisk Hyperbel har én Dobbeltnormal (se Fig. 2).

En Kurve med en parabolsk Gren kan ikke have nogen Dobbeltnormal.

Inverterer man en cyklisk Kurve af tredie Orden uden Dobbeltpunkter om et
Punkt, der ikke ligger paa Kurven, faar man en Kurve af fjerde Orden uden
Dobbeltpunkter. Da nu ved Inversion et Toppunkt maa gaa over i etToppunkt har man :

(11) En cyklisk Kurve af tredie Orden uden Dobbeltpunkt har 4 Top-
punkter.

Har man en Kurve af 3die eller 4de Orden med Dobbeltpunkt, faar man
ved Inversion om dette Punkt en Kurve af anden Orden med to uendelig fjerne
Punkler. Heraf udleder man ved (10):

(12) En cyklisk Kurve af 3die eller 4de Orden med ét Dobbeltpunkt
har 2 Toppunkter.

O^^^^,^-. Som i Beviset for (6) ser man, at

f /---V der gennem et vilkaarligt Punkt i Planen

gaar 2 oskulerende Cirkler. Lader man

Q ) (Pj CJ\) (13) En cyklisk Kurve af 4de Orden

^■"^ med et Dobbeltpunkt har intet

Fig- 3-8. 4 T f 1 1 • 1 ,

eller to Intleksionspunkter.

For Kurven af 3die Orden findes kun det ene Infleksionspunkt som altid.

Af (12) og (13) i Forbindelse med den almindelige Teori for Kurver af fjerde

Orden følger:

(14) En cyklisk Kurve af fjerde Orden med ét Dobbeltpunkt har 1

eller 2 Dobbelttangenter.

Ved det ovenstaaende i Forbindelse med min tidligere Opregning af samtlige
Former for Kurver af fjerde Orden er Formen af samtlige cykliske Kurver af fjerde
Orden bestemt. De findes i Fig. 3—8.

Vi vil nu atter holde os til en cyklisk Ellipse og undersøge dens Evolut (sé
Fig. 1 og Fig. 2). For at kunne gøre dette, maa vi ganske vist forøge vore Forud-
sætninger, idet vi ogsaa om Evoluten forudsætter, at den er en simpel Kurve.
Dette er æquivalent med en Forudsætning om, at ogsaa 3die og 4de Differential-
kvotient for den givne Kurve afdelingsvis — i et endeligt Antal Intervaller — har
Værdier der er endelige og bestemte.

Særlig vil vi søge at bestemme Evolutens Orden. Det er nemmere til en
Begyndelse at udvide Spørgsmaalet lidt ved at søge det højeste Antal af Krumnings-
cirkler, der kan skære en vilkaarlig given Cirkel x under ret Vinkel. Vi bemærker

9 373

nu først, at der i Kurvens Plan altid findes Punkter, hvorigennem der ikke gaar
nogen Krumningscirkel. Alle Krumningsradierne er nemlig efter vore Forudsæt-
ninger endelige, og ifølge (2) findes der 4 extreme Værdier af dem. De to af disse
maa svare til Maksimum, to andre til Minimum, og Maksimum og Minimum maa
følge paa hinanden, naar vi gennemløber Kurven i en bestemt Retning. Hver
af Maksimumscirklerne omslutter begge Minimumscirklerne, thi de sidstnævnte maa
ligge inden i Ellipsen, medens de førstnævnte maa omslutte den. Gennem et Punkt,
der ligger udenfor begge Maksimumscirklerne, gaar altsaa ingen Krumningscirkel.
Lad P være et saadant Punkt. Vi danner et Cirkclbundt, der indeholder x og en
Nulcirkel, hvis Centrum er P, og betragter den Samling af paa hinanden følgende
Cirkler u i Bundtet, der begynder med Nulcirklen (P) og ender med /. Cirkler,
der ligger tilstrækkelig nær ved (P), skærer ikke nogen Krumningscirkel. Det
kommer nu an paa at se, i hvilke Overgangsstillinger der kan ske Ændring i
Antallet af de Krumningscirkler, der skærer ;/ under ret Vinkel. Disse Overgangsstillinger
maa være saadanne, hvor ij skærer to konsekutive Krumningscirkler orthogonalt.
Dette vil for det første ske, naar fi skærer en af de hyperoskulerende Cirkler
orthogonalt, thi i en saadan falder to konsekutive Krumningscirkler sammen. Naar
/ji skal skære to andre konsekutive Krumningscirkler orthogonalt, maa dens Centrum
ligge paa disses Radikalakse; men en saadan er Tangent til Ellipsen, og fi maa
tillige gaa gennem Røringspunktet. De søgte Overgangsstillinger af den sidstnævnte
Art er altsaa de Cirkler i Bundtet, der skærer den givne cykliske Ellipse orthogonalt.
Det samm.e kan ogsaa ses ved følgende Hjælpesætning, der ogsaa kan være
nyttig ved andre Undersøgelser over algebraiske Kurvers Evoluter:

Er en plan Kurve stereografisk Projektion af en sfærisk Kurve,
vil den plane Kurves Evolut være Projektionen fra samme Øje-
punkt af den sfæriske Kurves reciprokke Polarfigur med Hensyn til
Kuglen.

Dette Lemma er saa at sige selvfølgeligt, naar man erindrer den velkendte Bestem-
melse af Centret for den stereografiske Projektion af en paa Billedkuglen liggende Cirkel.

De ovennævnte Paastande om Skiftet i Antallet af orthogonalt skærende
Krumningscirkler ses nu at følge deraf, at Antallet af Oskulationsplaner til en
Rum kurve gaaende gennem et Punkt P forandres med 2 derved (og for en
R* kun derved), at Punktet overskrider enten en stationær Oskulationsplan eller
Kurvens Tangenlflade.

Af den første Art Overgange findes højest fire, da Kurven har 4 hyperosku-
lerende Cirkler.

Af den anden Art kan vi vise at der højest findes to. Inverterer man nemlig
den givne Kurve med P som Inversionscentrum, maa den gaa over i en ny cyklisk
Ellipse, da den inverterede Kurve ligger helt i det endelige og hverken har Dobbelt-
punkter, Vendepunkter eller Spidser. Systemet af Cirklerne ti gaar over i et System
af koncentriske Cirkler, hvis fælles Centrum Q^ er det inverse Punkt til Centret for
den anden Nulcirkel i Bundtet. Men en Cirkel med givet Centrum (), kan kun

O.K. D.Vidensk.Selsk Skr . 7 Hække, naturvldensk. og niathem. Afd. VIII. 6. 49

374 10

skære den inverterede Oval orthogonalt i Røringspunktet for en fra Qi udgaaende
Tangent; af saadanne Tangenter findes højest to.

Nu begynder « i Nærheden af (P) med ikke at skære nogen Krumningscirkel,
og er dens Radius bleven tilstrækkelig stor, vil den ende med del samme. Da der nu
ved Cirklens Variation i hele Bundtet højest kan ske 6 Overgange, vil der ved Variationen
af ß fra (P) til / højest tre Gange kunne være vundet to orthogonalt skærende
Krumningscirkler, d. v. s. der findes højest 6 Krumningscirkler til Kurven, der skærer
en given Cirkel orthogonalt. Dette gælder, hvor stor end den givne Cirkels Radius
er — selve Methoden kan ogsaa bruges, naar man lader x være en ret Linie — og
man ser herved, at der højest findes 6 oskulerende Cirkler, hvis Centrer ligger
paa en given ret Linie. Ovalens Evolut er allsaa højest af 6te Orden. Men da
Evoluten ligger helt i det endelige, maa den være af lige Orden, og da den har 4
Spidser svarende til Centerne for de hyperoskulerende Cirkler, kan den hverken
være af anden eller fjerde Orden, thi en Kurve af fjerde Orden kan højest have 3
Spidser. Vi har altsaa bevist:

(15) Evoluten til en cyklisk Ellipse er i alle Til fæ Ide af 6te Orden.

Vi vil dernæst søge at bestemme Evolutens Klasse og bemærker først, at der
gennem et vilkaarligt Punkt P i Planen maa gaa mindst to Tangenter til Evoluten
eller Normaler til den cykliske Ellipse. Dette er en Følge af, at der sikkert maa
findes baade et Maksimum og et Minimum af Afstande fra P til Kurvens Punkter,
da Kurven ligger helt i del endelige. Heraf sluttes, at man sikkert kan bestemme
en ret Linie, der gaar gennem P og højest skærer Evoluten i 4 Punkter; en saadan
vil man i hvert Fald kunne bestemme som en Linie, der er nærliggende til en
gennem P gaaende Tangent til Evoluten. Lad nu M være el Punkt, der gennem-
løber en saadan ret Linie m ud fra dennes uendelig fjerne Punkt. Til at begynde
med gaar der da lo og kun to Tangenter gennem M, da der i hver Retning gaar
to Tangenter til Ellipsen. Efter at hele Linien er gennemløbet, vil der atter gaa
to og kun to Tangenter gennem M. Da Evoluten ikke har Vendetangenter, kan
der ved ilfs Bevægelse kun være sket Ændring i Antallet af Tangenter gaaende
gennem M derved, at dette Punkt har overskredet Evoluten, men da man skal ende
og begynde med del samme Antal af Tangenter gennem M, kan der kun to Gange
være vundet to Tangenter. Gennem intet Punkt af Planen vil der allsaa kunne
gaa flere end 2 4-2-2 = 6 Tangenter. Da Evoluten ikke kan være af anden
Klasse, har man altsaa :

(16) Evoluten til en cyklisk Oval er enten af 4de eller af 6te Klasse.

Vi maa dog sikkre os, at begge Muligheder eksisterer; at den første kan findes,
ved man allerede fra den algebraiske Ellipse. Men man har i Almindelighed:

(17) Enhver i det endelige liggende Kurve af anden O rd en ( m ed endelige
Kru mningsrad ier ), li vis Evolut er af 4 de Klasse, maa være cyklisk.

Lad nemlig P være et Punkt, der ikke ligger paa Kurven, og lad det være Centrum
for en Cirkel i Kurvens Plan. Betragter vi nu alle de Cirkler, der har P til Cen-
trum, og lader Radien vokse fra en uendelig lille lil en uendelig stor Længde, vil
den begynde med ikke at have noget Punkt fælles med Kurven. Da der nu kun

375

kan ske Ændring i Antallet af Skæringspunkter mellem Kurven og en af Cirklerne
derved, at Cirklen beiører Kurven, og der efter Forudsætningen gennem P højest
gaar 4 Normaler til denne, vil Cirklen højest skære i 4 Punkter. Man ser let, at
dette ogsaa gælder, naar Cirklens Centrum falder paa selve Kurven.

En Kurve af fjerde Orden, der skal kunne være Evolut til en cyklisk Oval, er
let at karakterisere (se Fig. 1). Den skal have 4 Spidser, og fra hvert Punkt i
Planen skal der til den gaa to Tangenter. Deraf følger straks, at den ikke kan
have noget Dobbeltpunkt, thi i Nærheden af et saadant Punkt vilde man kunne
finde Punkter, hvorfra der ikke udgik nogen Tangent. I Henhold til min tidligere
Klassificalion af alle Former af Kurver af 4de Klasse kan den ikke have anden
Form end den, der er givet for
Evoluten i Fig. 1.

Enhver lukket Kurve uden
Spidser, hvis Evolut har denne
Form, vil være en cyklisk Oval.
Den nødvendige og tilstrækkelige
Betingelse for, at Evolventen til en
saadan Kurve lukker sig, er, som
man let ser:

— Aß+ -CD = -AC+-BD,
hvor Å, B, C, D er de paa hinan-
den følgende Spidser paa Kurven.

Er denne Betingelse opfyldt,
har man i Evolventen til Kurven

— forsaavidt da intetsteds Krum-
ningsradius til denne bliver nul ,

— en i det endelige liggende cyk-
lisk Kurve uden Spidser, Vende-
punkter og Dobbelttangenter, men
en saadan maa være en Oval.

Som Eksempel kan nævnes, at enhver ydre Parallelkurve til en Ellipse er en
cyklisk Oval. Endvidere ser man, at enhver af 4 Cirkelbuer sammensat Oval, da
højest en af Buerne kan være større end en Halvcirkel, vil skæres i højest
4 Punkter af enhver Cirkel, der ikke indeholder en af de sammensættende Buer. Oven-
staaende indeholder tillige et Bevis for Eksistensen af ikke analytiske cykliske Ovaler.
Naar Evoluten til en Oval er af 6te Orden, af 6te Klasse, maa den ogsaa
have 4 Spidser og 2 Dobbelttangenter. Men man kan endnu sige noget mere til
Karakterisering af denne Kurve. Ved Evoluten er bestemt et endeligt Omraade w,
der er begrænset af Buer af Evoluten. Alle disse Buer maa vende deres konkave
Side udad. Fra ethvert Punkt i Planen skal nemlig gaa mindst 2 Tangenter til
Kurven, og fra et uendelig fjernt Punkt netop 2; hvis nu en Begrænsningsbue af
fu vendte sin konvekse Side udad, vilde der fra et Punkt indeni w men nær ved

49*

Fig. 9.

376 12

denne Bue ikke gaa nogen Tangent til Kurven. Kurven maa endvidere nødvendigvis
have et Dobbeltpunkt, thi ellers vilde hele Evoluten høre med til Begrænsningen
af u), og fra hvert Kurvej)unkt altsaa udgaa 2 og kun 2 Tangenter, der berørte
udenfor Punktet; Klassen blev da 4. Af eventuelle Dobbeltpunkter kan kun ét
høre til en Sløjfe, thi en Tangent, der ruller over hele Kurven, maa derved kun
have drejet sig 360°.

Med disse Betingelser viser Prøve, at Evolutens Form maa være den, der er
angivet i Fig. (9), men det maa udtrykkelig bemærkes, at Beskrivelsen er ufuld-
stændig og f. Eks. ikke kan maale sig med de Beskrivelser, jeg tidligere har givet
af Formerne af Fjerdegradskurver. Betingelsen for, at en Evolvent til en saadan
Kurve lukker sig, er, idet A, B, C, D er Kurvens Spidser i den Orden, hvori de
følger paa hinanden paa Kurven:

^AB + ^CD = ^AC + ~-DA.

Er denne Betingelse opfyldt, ser man, som før, at en Evolvent til Kurven i
Fig. (9), der ikke naar ind til denne Kurve, vil være en Oval.

Det kan endnu bemærkes, at to cykliske Ellipser j-^ og ; ,> kan lægges saaledes
i en Plan, at de tilsammen danner en cyklisk Kurve af 4de Orden. For at vise
Muligheden heraf bemærkes, at en Cirkel, fra hvis Centrum der kun udgaar to
Normaler til en Oval, ikke kan skære denne i flere end to Punkter. Dette bevises
aldeles som den ovenstaaende Sætning (17). En tilstrækkelig Betingelse for, at en
Cirkel, der skærer y^ i to Punkter, ikke kan skære y., i flere end to Punkter,
er altsaa den, at en Linie, der slaar vinkelret paa Midten af et Liniestykke, der
forbinder et Punkt inden i -j-^ med et Punkt inden i ^, ikke indeholder noget
Punkt, hvorfra der udgaar flere end to Normaler til nogen af Ovalerne d. v. s. at
en saadan Linie ikke gaar ind i de ovennævnte Omraader cu^ og lu., svarende til de
to Ovaler. Da (o^ og (Oo er fast knyttede til y^. og 7-.,, kan delte aabenbart naas
ved at fjerne disse tilstrækkelig langt fra hinanden. Ved hiversion kan heraf
udledes mere almindelige cykliske Kurver sammensatte af to Grene, hvis ikke-
analytiske Eksistens herved bliver godtgjort.

Vi vil nu betragte en cyklisk Hyperbel (se Fig. 2). Her findes kun to hyper-
oskulerende Cirkler, og disse maa være numeriske Minima; de maa derfor ligge
helt indeni hver sin af de to Pseudogrene, hvori Kurven deles af de to uendelig
fjerne Punkter. Gennem et Punkt indenfor en af Minimumscirklerne gaar der
ifølge Hjælpesætningen S. 4 ingen oskulerende Cirkel. For nu ogsaa her at bestemme
Antallet af de Krumningscirkler, der skcerer en given Cirkel x orthogonal!, danner
vi paa lignende Maade som før Side 9 et Bundt af Cirkler bestemt ved / og en
Nulcirkel, hvis Centrum er et Punkt P indenfor en af Minimumscirklerne. De
Overgangsstillinger, i hvilke der kan ske Ændring i Antallet af orthogonalt skærende
Krumningscirkler, er dels de Cirkler i Bundtet, der skærer de hyperoskulerende
Cirkler orthogonalt — og af dem findes to — dels de Cirkler, der skærer Hyperblen
orthogonalt. For at bestemme Antallet af de sidste, inverterer vi som for med P
som hiversionscentrum og faar derved en Kurve af fjerde Orden med P til Dobbelt-

13 377

punkt. Fra P udgaar ingen Tangent til denne Kurve, den har ingen andre Dobbelt-
punkter og har ingen Infleksionspunkter. Men Formen af en saadan Kurve er
fuldstændig bestemt efter min tidligere Klassifikation, og til den udgaar der fra et
Punkt højest 4 Tangenter (se Fig. 5)*. Der findes altsaa i alt 6 Overgangsstillinger,
og heraf udledes som ovenfor, at Evolutens Orden enten maa være 4 eller 6. Men
den første Mulighed maa her udskydes ligesom ved den cykliske Ellipse. Man vil
nemlig se, at i hvert Fald den uendelig fjerne rette Linie skærer i 6 Punkter, idet
den vil være Spidstangent to Gange. Den uendelig fjerne rette Linie u kan nemlig
ikke have flere Punkter fællesmed Evoluten end de to U^ og U.^, der er Krumnings-
centrer til Hyperblens uendelig fjerne Punkter. Disse Punkter U^ og U.^ ligger i
Retninger, der er vinkelrette paa Asymptoternes Retninger. Ved i\ og f/j deles u
i to Dele; fra et Punkt af den ene Del udgaar to i det endelige liggende Tangenter
til Evoluten, fra et Punkt af den anden Del udgaar ingen saadan Tangent. Da nu
u maa berøre i U^ og U.,, thi Normalen i et uendelig fjernt Punkt af Hyperblen
er selv uendelig fjern, følger heraf, at U^ og Uo maa være Spidser med u til fælles
Spidstangent (som ved en algebraisk Hyperbel).

Det samme kan ogsaa ses ved den Side 9 nævnte Hjælpesætning, da Billedel
af en Rumkurve faar en Spids, naar Øjepunktet ligger paa en Tangent til
Kurven. At U^ og U., ligger uendelig fjernt i Retninger, der er vinkelrette paa
Asymptoternes Retninger, følger efter denne Metode deraf, at konjugerede Tangenter
til en Kugle staar vinkelret paa hinanden.

Vi har altsaa vist:
(18) Evoluten til enhver cyklisk Hyperbel er af Ordenen 6.

Af denne Sætning udleder man ligesom ved Ellipsen, at Klassen maa være
4 eller 6. Men her kan man i Modsætning til Forholdene ved den cykliske Ellipse
vise, at Klassen maa være 4 i alle Tilfælde. Lad os lægge Figuren saaledes, at
man kan sige, at den ene Pseudogren af Hyperblen ligger tilhøjre, den anden
tilvenstre; dette kan f. Eks. ske ved, at vi lægger den Halveringslinie x af Asym-
ptotevinklen, der skærer Hyperblen, i en vandret Stilling. Minimumscirklerne ligger
helt indeni hver sin Gren, og man kan derfor utvetydig sige, at Spidsen A for
Evoluten til den højre Pseudogren vender tilvenstre, og at den anden Spids B vender
tilhøjre. Efter vort Valg af Betegnelser vil retvinklet Projektion af BA paa x gaa
tilhøjre. De uendelig fjerne Punkter af Evoluten ligger nu i Retninger, der er vinkel-
rette paa Asymptoternes Retninger. Lad os projicere BA i disse Retninger ind paa .r.
Da de to Retninger er symmetriske med Hensyn til x, vil Projektionen af ßA for
mindst én af disse Retninger gaa tilhøjre. Lad (/i angive en Retning, hvor dette
sikkert finder Sted.

Gennem t/j kan ikke gaa andre Tangenter end u, thi til en Hyperbel gaar
ikke andre Tangenter i Asymptotens Retning end selve Asymptoten. Drejer man
nu en ret Linie m om U^, idet den har u til Begyndelsesslilling, vil den til at
begynde med kun skære Evoluten i to Punkter, det ene i Nærheden af U^, det andet i

* Se. Om Ikke-analytiske Kurver, Kgl. D.Vidensk. Selsk. Skrifter, Naturv. og Math. Afd. I. (>, S. 304(16).

378 14

Nærheden af U.,- En Ændring i Antallet af Skæringspunkter mellem m og Kurven
kan, da der fra U^ ikke udgaar nogen Tangent, kun ske derved, at m overskrider en
Forbindelseslinie mellem {'i og en af Kurvens to Spidser. Men betragter man nu Figuren,
og lader Linien bevæge sig parallelt med sig selv stadig lilvenslre, vil den først Iræffe den
Spids A, der tiører til den højre Pseudogren, og den Spids vender tilvenstre; der vil
derfor tabes to Skæringspunkter derved, at m overskrider Stillingen U^A; disse vil
vindes igen, naar ni overskrider Forbindelseslinien mellem U^ og den anden Spids.
Enhver gennem U^ gaaende Linie skærer altsaa Kurven i højest 2 Punkter foruden
i selve f/j.

Lad nu P være et vilkaarligt Punkt i Planen, og lad os forbinde P med f/j
med en ret Linie in. Gennemløber et Punkt M Linien fra U^ til P, vil der, naar
M er nær ved U^ (d.v. s. naar M endnu ikke har overskredet Evoluten) gennem M
kun gaa 2 Tangenter til denne. Dette Antal kan ved M's Bevægelse højest vokse
til 4, da man altid kan vælge en saadan Del P U ^ af ni, at der paa den ligger
intet eller højest ét Skæringspunkt med Evoluten. Man har altsaa her:
(19) Evoluten til en cyklisk Hyperbel er altid af Klasse 4.

V^i vil til Slutning endnu betragte den simple cykliske Parabel. Dens Evolut
kan kun have ét Punkt U fælles med den uendelig fjerne rette Linie ii, nemlig
Krumningscentret i Parablens uendelig fjerne Punkt. Tangenten i V er u, og vi
kan vise, at ii maa være en Vendetangent. Fra hvert fra U forskelligt Punkt
af II udgaar nemlig én og kun én i det endelige liggende Tangent til Evoluten,
fra U selv ingen saadan Tangent. Deraf følger, at u enten maa være en Vende-
tangent eller en sædvanlig Tangent. Men Evoluten, der altsaa har én og kun én
Spids, maa være af ulige Klasse, og hvis ii var en sædvanlig Tangent, vilde der
fra et Punkt i Nærheden af u (men ikke i Nærheden af U) udgaa to Tangenter
til Evoluten; dette viser, at ii maa være en Vendetagent. Dette kan ogsaa udledes
ved Hjælpesætningen Side 9; Projektionen af en Rumkurve vil nemlig, naar
Projektionscentret P ligger i Røringspunktet for en stationær Oskulationsplan, faa
et Infleksionspunkt i Sporet af Kurvens Tangent i P.

Vi begynder nu som før med at søge det højeste Antal af de Krumningscirkler,
der kan skære en given Cirkel x orthogonalt, og betragter i den Anledning et
Cirkelbundt [fj) bestemt ved x og en Nulcirkel, hvis Centrum ligger indeni Parab-
lens hyperoskulerende Cirkel. Varierer n ud fra Nulcirklen, vil Opgaven til at
begynde med ikke have nogen Løsning. Stillinger af n, hvor der vindes eller
tabes to Løsninger, er saadanne, hvor fi skærer orthogonalt enten den hypero-
skulerende Cirkel — hvilket giver 1 Mulighed — eller Parablen. For at finde
Antallet af de sidstnævnte Cirkler inverteres Parablen med P som Inversionscentrum;
derved faar man som bekendt efter Theorien for inverse Kurver en Kurve af
fjerde Orden uden Vendetangenter og med en Spids, hvorigennem der ikke gaar
nogen Tangent til Kurven. En saadan Kurve kan i Overensstemmelse med min
tidligere Enumeration ikke være nogen anden end den, der er fremstillet i Fig. (6),
og den er af 3die Klasse. Man faar altsaa i alt fire Overgangscirkler. Heraf udledes
paa samme Maade som i de ovenstaaende Tilfælde, at en Cirkel x højest kan skære

15 379

4 Krumningscirkler til Parablen orlhogonalt. Lader man u være en ret Linie, erin-
dres om, at en i det endelige liggende ret Linie maa opfattes som Orlhogonaicirkel
til den uendelig fjerne rette Linie regnet dobbelt; dette ses ved Inversion at følge
af, at en Cirkel er orthogonal til en Nulcirkel, hvis Centrum ligger paa den først-
nævnte Cirkel. Men den uendelig fjerne rette Linie regnet dobbelt er en speciel
Krumningscirkel til Parablen. En ret Linie kan altsaa højest have 3 Punkter fælles
med Evoluten; denne, der er af 3die Orden og bar en Spids, maa være af 3die Klasse o:

(20) En almindelig cyklisk Parabels Evolut er af 3die Orden og 3die
Klasse.

At der eksisterer ikke algebraiske cykliske Parabler og Hyperbler, følger af,
al enhver lukket Kurve, hvis Evolut er bestemt som angivet ovenfor, maa være
cyklisk. Dette bevises som Sætning (17).

Vi vil nu se, hvad der af det foregaaende kan udledes om Kurver af fjerde
Orden beliggende paa en Kugle. Det forudsættes om disse Kurver, at deres Projek-
tioner er simple Kurver i den S. 1 givne Forstand.

Ved stereografisk Projektion gaar Rumkurven over i en plan cyklisk Kurve.
Da denne har 4 hyperoskuierende Cirkler, naar Kurven hverken har Dobbelt-
punkter eller gaar i det uendelige, faar man:

(21) En sammenhængende Kurve af fjerde Orden uden Dobbeltpunkter
beliggende paa en Kugle — eller en vilkaarlig konveks Kegle-
snitsflade — har 4 hyperoskuierende Planer. Har Kurven et
Dobbeltpunkt, findes kun 2 saadanne.

Da der gennem et vilkaarligt Punkt i en cyklisk Kurves Plan højest gaar 4
Krumningscirkler og ifølge (8) og (14) højest to dobbeltrørende Cirkler, faar man:

(22) Til en sammenhængende Kurve af fjerde Orden uden Dobbelt-
punkter beliggende paa en konveks Keglesnitsflade gaar gennem
et vilkaarligt Punkt af selve Fladen højest 4 Oskulationsp låner
og højest 2 Tangentplaner til den dobbelt omskrevne Developable.

Nøjere Bestemmelse af Klassen har jeg kun naaet ved de sfæriske Kurver, der
er inverse til Kurver af anden Orden. Til denne Art hører enhver sfærisk Kurve
af fjerde Orden med et Dobbeltpunkt, thi fra dette vil Kurven projiceres ved en
Kegleflade af anden Orden. Vi vil først finde det højeste Antal af Oskulations-
planer, der kan gaa gennem et Punkt P udenfor Kuglen. Lad Polarplanen til P
skære Kuglen i en Cirkel x\ de gennem P gaaende Oskulationsplaner vil da skære
Kuglen i Cirkler, der er orthogonale til x. Da nu Vinkler overføres uforandrede
ved stereografisk Afbildning, kan man af det tidligere (se Beviset for 15)) udlede,
at der gennem P gaar højest 6 Oskulationsplaner; tillige har vi i det foregaaende
vist, at dette højeste Antal kan naas for mindst ét Punkt P.

Vi mangler blot endnu at tage Hensyn til Punkter indenfor Kuglefladen.
Ændring i Antallet af Oskulationsplaner gaaende gennem et Punkt P kan nu, idet
P bevæger sig kontinuert f. Eks. langs en ret Linie, kun ske ved, at P enten over-
skrider Kurvens Tangentflade eller overskrider en af Kurvens hyperoskuierende

380 16

Planer. Men Tangenterne kan ikke gaa ind i Kuglen, saa vi behøver kun at tage
Hensyn til den sidstnævnte Mulighed. Men de to hyperoskulerende Cirkler til den
cykliske Hyperbel, hvori Rumkurven projiceres stereografisk fra Dobbeltpunktet,
ligger udenfor hinanden. De dertil svarende Hyperoskulationsplaner niaa derfor
have en Skæringslinie, der ligger udenfor Kuglen. Forbindes nu P med et Punkt
Q af denne Linie med en ret Linie, vil man langs denne kunne naa til Kuglens
Overflade uden at skære nogen Oskulationsplan. Fra et vilkaarligt Punkt indeni
Kuglen kan der altsaa højest udgaa to oskulerende Planer. Vi har altsaa bevist:

(23) En Kurve af fjerde Orden, som ligger paa en konveks Keglesnits-
flade og har et Dobbelt punkt, maa være af Klassen 6.

Samme Resultat kan man faa, naar Kurven kan projiceres stereografisk i en
cyklisk Ellipse. Her findes 4 hyperoskulerende Planer, men man kan i Henhold
til ovenstaaende altid finde to af disse, hvis Skæringslinie s ligger udenfor Kuglen,
og forbinder man P med Skæringspunktet Q mellem s og en af de øvrige Hyper-
oskulationsplaner, ser man, at der i dette Tilfælde ikke kan gaa flere end 4 (Jskula-
tionsplaner gennem et Punkt indeni Kuglen.

Projiceres Rumkurven stereografisk i en cyklisk Parabel, har den en Spids.
Man kan da let ved de samme Slutninger som ovenfor udlede:

(24) En Kurve af fjerde Orden, som ligger paa en konveks Keglesnits-
flade og har en Spids, maa være af fjerde Klasse.

Det vil ikke være til nogen Nytte at søge det højeste Antal af Dobbeltsekanter
til en sfærisk Rumkurve af 4de Orden, der kan gaa gennem et givet Punkt. Man
kan nemlig i et Eksempel vise, at dette Antal kan blive saa stort, det skal være.
Lad os begynde med at konstruere en cyklisk Ellipse, der er symmetrisk om en
lad os sige vandret Akse. Dennes Evolut er, da ogsaa symmetrisk om samme
Akse. Lad Punkter af denne, der ligger symmetrisk med Hensyn til Aksen, være
Pi P} , P, PJ ...PnPh- Vi lader nu den øverste Del af Evoluten indeholdende
Punkterne P^ ■ ■ ■ Pn uforandret, medens vi ændrer paa den nederste, dog saaledes,
at Punkterne PlP},...Pn samt Tangenterne i disse Punkter forbliver uforandrede.
Men en Bue mellem to paa hinanden følgende Punkter P ændrer vi saaledes, at
at den vedbliver at være en elementær Bue med de samme Endetangenter, og at
dens Længde forbliver uforandret, og endelig saaledes, at hele Evoluten
forbliver af fjerde Klasse. Dette er øjensynlig muligt; Evoluten er nu ikke længere
selv symmetrisk om Aksen. En Oval-Evolvente til den ændrede Ellipseevolut maa
nu i Henhold til det foregaaende atter være en cyklisk Ellipse, og den indeholder 2n
Punkter PjPJ, P,P\...PnP,\, der ligger parvis symmetrisk med Hensyn til en
Akse, der dog ikke er en Symmetriakse for Kurven. Tager man nu en stereografisk
Projektion af denne Oval fra et Punkt O ind paa en Kugle, faar man en Rumkurve
af fjerde Orden. Planen gennem O og den ovennævnte Akse har med Hensyn til
Kuglen en Pol S. Gennem dette Punkt gaar alle Forbindelseslinierne mellem de
Par af Punkter, hvori P^P\, P^P\ . ..PnPn projiceres, uden at S er Toppunktet
for en Kegle af anden Orden indeholdende Kurven.

RESUME.

r ar courbe simple je comprends une courbe fermée (dans le sens iirojectif) composée
d'un nombre fini d'arcs élémentaires. Un arc élémentaire est un arc continue dont les tangentes
et les rayons de courbure varient d'une manière continue le long de la courbe et qu'une
droite arbitraire rencontre en deux points au plus. Nous supposerons en outre que les
rayons de courbure (pour un point à une distance finie) ne sont infinis que pour les points
d'inflexion et nuls que pour les points de rebroussement; ces points sont nécessairement des
[joints communs à deux arcs consécutifs.

Mon but est d'étudier les courbes simples rencontrées par un cercle en quatre points
au plus. Ces courbes, je les appelle cycliques.

Comme une droite quelconque jointe à la droite à l'infini est un cercle spécial, nne
courbe cyclique sera du quatrième, du troisième ou du deuxième ordre, c'est-à-dire qu'elle
sera coupée par une droite arbitraire en 2, 3 au 4 points ou plus.

On voit aussitôt qu'une courbe cyclique peut avoir un point double au plus. Une courbe
cyclique du quatrième ordre doit rester dans la partie finie du plan; une courbe du troisième
ordre aura un seul point à l'infini, mais une courbe du deuxième ordre aura 0, 1 ou 2 points
à l'infini. Suivant ces cas, nous appellerons une courbe cyclique simple du deuxième ordre,
une ellipse, une parabole ou une hyperbole cyclique.

Cherchons maintenant les sommets d'une courbe cj'clique, c'est-à-dire les points où la
courbe est rencontrée par un cercle en quatre points confondus. On trouvera:

Chaque courbe simple cyclique sans points doubles et sans points à l'infini
aura quatre sommets.

Pour le démontrer, on considère la correspondance (3—1) entre les points R de la courbe
et les points P où la courbe est rencontrée de nouveau pas les cercles osculateurs en R\ Les
1 +3 = 4 points doubles de la correspondance donnent les quatre sommets.

Dans les cas exclus dans ce théorème on démontre d'une manière analogue que:

Une cyclique du troisième ordre sans points doubles aura quatre sommets.

' Ici et souvent dans ce qui suit je in'appuie sur le principe suivant: Si sur une courbe fermée
on suppose entre deux points X et V uûe correspondance (p, q) où deux points Y (ou X) correspondants
au même points X (ou Y) ne peuvent jamais se confondre et si les deux sens de X et Y correspondants
sont contraires, alors on aura p^ q points correspondants qui se confondent (points doubles).

Dans chaque cas il faut une discussion détaillée de la figure pour s'assurer que les conditions
mentionnées sont remplies. Dans ce résumé succinct, nous avons supprimé cette discussion souvent
pénible.

D. K. I). VidcnsU. Selsli. Sltr.. 7. Ræklic. n:iturviilcnsli. niJ ni.'ithom. Aid. VIII. 6. SO

382 18

Une cyclique du troisième ou du qualrième ordre à un point double et de
même une ellipse ou une hyperbole cyclique auront deux sommets, mais une
parabole n'en aura qu'un.

11 est l'acile de voir que deux cercles osculateurs à la courbe en deux points réunis par
un arc de la courbe ne contenant aucun sommet seront situés l'un dans l'intérieur de l'autre.
Par conséquent, si A et 5 sont deux sommets consécutifs sur la courbe, on ne pourra faire
passer par un point arbitraire du plan plus d un des cercles osculateurs à cet arc.
On en déduit en supposant le point à l'infini:

Une c o u r i) e cyclique du quatrième ordre sans point do u b 1 e a u r a deux o u
quatre jioints d'inflexions, mais si la courbe a un ])oint double il y en aura
deux ou aucun.

De la théorie générale des courbes simples du quatrième ordre on déduit;'

Une courbe cyclique du quatrième ordre aura un ou deux tangentes doubles.

Alors les formes des courbes cycliques du quatrième ordre sont celles des fîg. 3—8.

En considérant les points variables M^ et M, où la courbe est rencontrée par un cercle tangent
à la courbe en un point fixe, on a entre M^ et M 2 une correspondance (1, 1). On en déduit:

A chaque courbe cyclique appartiennent en général deux system es distincts
de cercles doublement tangents à la courbe; seulement la parabole n'en a qu'un.

Dans ce qui suit nous nous bornerons aux courbes cycliques du deuxième ordre, prin-
cipalement pour en étudier les développées. Il résulte de ce qui précède que la développée
d'une ellipse cyclique aura quatre, d'une hyperbole deux et d'une parabole un point de
rebroussenicnt (correspondant au nombre de sommets).

Si un cercle est tangent en M et A^ à une ellipse cyclique et si les tangentes en M et P
sont parallèles entre elles on aura entre A^ et P une correspondance (2,2); on en déduit:

Une ellipse cyclique aura deux normales doubles.

Quant à l'hyjjcrbole, une discussion un peu i)lus détaillée est nécessaire, mais la même
méthode s'apijliquera et on trouvera:

Une hyperbole cyclique aura une normale double; — une parabole n'en aura
aucune.

Les normales doubles des courbes algébriques passent par les sommets, mais cela n'a
pas lieu en général.

Pour trouver l'ordre de la développée, je commence par chercher le nombre des cercles
osculateurs à la courbe qui coupent orthogonalement un cercle donné a. Si l'on fait varier
un cercle /-i dans un faisceau contenant a, le nombre cherché ne s'altérera que dans les cas où
ß coupe orthogonalement soit le cercle osculateur en un sommet soit la courbe donnée. En
s'ajjpuyant sur cette remarque on trouve qu'il y a 6 cercles au plus qui coupent a ortho-
gonalement. En sup])osant enfin a réduit à une droite on aura;

L'ordre de la développée d'une ellipse ou d'une hyperbole cycliques est 6;
mais celui d'une parabole cyclique est 3.

Maintenant on est à même de chercher la classe de la développée et l'on trouve;

La développée d'une ellipse cyclique est de la quatrième ou de la sixième
classe.

Il y a là une différence essentielle entre l'ellipse algébrique et l'ellipse cyclique, l'ordre
de la développée de la première de ces courbes étant toujours 4.

Les deux formes possibles de la développée se trouvent aux fîg. 1 et 9.

On peut encore démontrer;

Chaque courbe simple dont la développée est de la quatrième classe sera
cyclique.

1 Voir Det Kgl. danske Vidensk. Selsk. Skrifter 6, sér. X, 1 : Indledning i Læren om grafiske Kurver.

19 383

Il est assez i-urieux de constater que la ilifTérence ci-dessus iiiciilionnéc no se manifeste
que pour les ellipses, car on a:

La développée d'une hyperbole cyclique est de la qualrièuie classe et la
développée d'une parabole cyclique sera de la troisième classe.

Des théorèmes sur les courbes cycliques planes on déduit un moyen de projection
stéréographique des théorèmes sur certaines courbes situées sur une sphère. On a p. ex:

Une courbe simple sphérique du quatrième ordre sans points doubles
aura toujours quatre plans stationnaires.

Une courbe simple du quatrième ordre à un point double est de la classe
6 c'est-à-dire tpie par un point arbitraire de l'espace passent six plans osculateurs au plus.

Il va sans dire que dans ces théorèmes on peut substituer à la sphère une surface
convexe algébrique du deuxième degré.

TEKMSK" l^mTOTET

Mémoires de I'Acade'mie Royale des Sciences et des Lettres de Danemark, Copenhague,

7"« série. Section des Sciences, t. VIII, n"!.

LIVSFORMEN

HOS

PLANTER PAA NY JORD

C. RAUNKLER

D. Kgl. Danske Vidensk. Selsk. Skrifter, 7. Række, naturvidensk. og mathem. Afd. VIII. 1

- •^a^jHcc)— .

KØBENHAVN

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Det Kgl. Danske Videnskabernes Selskabs Skrifter,

6*6 Række.
Naturvidenskabelig og matiiematislî Afdeling.

I, med 42 Tavler, 1880-85 29. 50.

1. Prjl», K. Undersøgelser over Lysets Brydning I Dampe os tilsvarende Vædsker. 1880 65.

2. Boas, J. E. V. Studier over Decapodernes Slægtskabsforhold. Med 7 Tavler. Résumé en français. 1880 8. 50.

3. Steeiistrup, Jap. Sepiadarium og Idlosepius, to nye Slægter af Sepiernes Familie. Med Bemærlininger om

to beslægtede Former Sepioloidea D'Orb. og Spirula Lmk. Med 1 Tavle. Resumé en français. 1881 1. 35.

4. Colding, A. Nogle Undersøgelser over Stormen over Nord- og Mellem-Europa af 12'^ — 14'ie Novb. 1872 og

over den derved fremkaldte Vandflod i Østersøen. Med 23 Planer og Kort. Résumé en français. 1881 10. »

5. Boas, J. E. V. Om en fossil Zebra-Form fra Brasiliens Campos. Med et Tillæg om to Arter af Slægten

Hippidlon. Med 2 Tavler. 1881 2. «

6. Steen, A. Integration af en lineær Differentialligning af anden Orden. 1882 • 50.

7. Erabbe, 0. Nye Bidrag til Kundskab om Fuglenes Bændelorme. Med 2 Tavler. 1882 1. 35.

8. lianiiover, A. Den menneskelige Hjerneskals Bygning ved Anencephalia og Misdannelsens Forhold til

Hjerneskallens Primordialbrusk. Med 2 Tavler. Extrait el explication des planches en français. 1882 1. 60.

9. Den menneskelige Hjerneskals Bygning ved Cyclopia og Misdannelsens Forhold til Hjerneskallens

Primordialbrusk. Med 3 Tavler. Extrait et explic. des planches en français. 1884 4. 35.

10. Den menneskelige Hjerneskals Bygning ved Synolia og Misdannelsens Forhold til Hjerneskallens Pri-
mordialbrusk. Med 1 Tavle. Extrait et explic. des planches en français. I88i 1. 30.

11. Lehmann, A. Forsøg paa en Forklaring af Synsvinklens Indflydelse paa Opfattelsen af Lys og Farve ved

direkte Syn. Med 1 Tavle. Résumé en français 1885 1. 85.

II, med 20 Tavler, 1881-86 20. »

1. Warming, Eug. Familien Podoslemaceae. 1''« Afhandling. Med 6 Tavler. Resumé et explic. des planches

en français. 1881 • 3. 15.

2. Lorenz, L. Om Metallernes Ledningsevne for Varme og Elektricitet. 1881 1. 30.

3. Warming, Eng. Familien Podoslemaceae. 2^^" Afliandling. Med 9 Tavler. Resumé et explic. des planches

en français. 1882 5. 30.

4. Christensen, Odin. Bidrag til Kundskab om Manganets Ilter 1883 I. 10.

5. Lorenz, L. Farvespredningens Theori. 1883 60.

6. Crani, J. P. Undersøgelser ang. Mængden af Primtal under en given Grænse. Résumé en français. 1884 4. •

7. Lorenz, L. Bestemmelse af Kviksolvsajlcrs elektriske Ledningsmodstande i absolut elektromagnetisk

Maal. 1885 80.

8. TrausU'dt, M. P. A. Spolia Atlantica. Bidrag til Kundskab om Salperne. Med 2 Tavler. Explic. des

planches en français. 1885 3. »

9. Bohr, Chr. Om Iltens Afvigelser fra den Uoyle-Mariotteske Lov ved luve Tryk. Med 1 Tavle. 1885 ... I. •

10. — — Undersøgelser over den af Blodfarvestollet optagne Iltmængde udførte ved Hjælp af et nyt Absorptio-

nieter. Med 2 Tavler. 1886 1. 70.

11. Thiele, T. N. Om Definitionerne for Tallet, Talarterne og de tallignende Bestemmelser. 1886 2. •

III, med G Tavler, 1885—86 16. ■

1. Zeuthen, U. C. Keglesnilslæren i Oldtiden. 1885 10. •

2. Levinsen, G. II. R. Spolia Atlantica. Om nogle pelagiske Annulata. Med 1 Tavle. 1885 1. 10.

3. Rung, C. Selvregislrerende meteorologiske instrumenter Med 1 Tavle. 1885 1. 10.

4. Meinert, Fr. De encéphale Myggelarver. Med 4 dobb. Tavler. Resumé et explic. des planches en

français. 1886 6. 75.

VI, med 25 Tavler. 1886-88 21. 50.

1. Boas, J. E. V. Spolia Allantica. Bidrag til Pteropodernes Morfologi og Systematik samt til Kundskaben om

deres geografiske Udbredelse. Med 8 Tavler. Resumé en français. 1886 10. 50.

2. Lehmann, A. Om Anvendelsen af Middelgradationernes Melode paa Lyssansen. Med 1 Tavle. 1886. ... 1. 50.

3. Hannover, A. Primordialbrusken og dens Forbening i Truneus og Extremiteter hos Mennesket for Fød-

selen. Extrait en français. 1887 1. 60.

4. Lutken, Chr. Tillæg til «Bidrag til Kundskab om Arterne af Slægten Cyaimis Latr. eller Hvallusene'.

Med 1 Tavle. Résumé en français. 1887 • 60.

5. Fortsatte Bidrag til Kundskab om de arktiske Dybhavs-Tudsefiske, særligt Slægten Æiiiaiitolophits.

Med 1 Tavle. Résumé en français. 1887 75.

6. Kritiske Studier over nogle Tandhvaler af Slægterne Tursiops, Orca og Lagenorhyiichus. Med 2

Tavler. Résumé en francais 1887 4 75.

7. Koefoed, E. Studier i Plalosoforbindelser. 1888 1. 30.

8. Warming, Eug. Familien Podoslemaceae. 3'"^ Afhandling. Med 12 Tavler. Resumé et explic. des planches

en français. 1888 6. 45.

V, med 11 Tavler og 1 Kort. 1889—91 15. 50.

1. Luiken, Chr. Spolia Atlantica. Bidrag til Kundskab om de tre pelagiske Tandhval-Slægter Steno, Del-

•phinus og Frudelphiiius. Med 1 Tavle og 1 Kort. Resumé en fr<inçais. 1889 2. 75.

2. Valenliner, II. De endelige Transfgrmations-Gruppers Theori. Résumé en français. 1889 5. 50.

3. Hausen, O.J, Cirolanidæ et famiiiæ nunnullæ propinquæ Musci Hauniensis. Et Bidrag til Kundskaben

om nogle Familier af isopode Krebsdyr. Med 10 Kobbertavler. Résumé en français. 1890 9. 50.

4. Lorenz, L, Analytiske Undersøgelser over Primlalmængdernc. 1891 > 75.

(Fortsætfos paa Omslagets S. 3.)

(Fort*, fra Umslagets <<. 2.)

Kr. ete

VI, med 4 Tavler. 1890—02 13. 75.

1. Lorenz, L. Lysbevægelsen i og uden for en ar plane Lysbølger belyst Kugle. 1890 2. •

2. Sormseii, William. Om Forbeninger i Svømmeblæren, Pleura og Aortas Væg og Sammensmeltningen deraf

med Hvirvelsøjlen særlig hos Siluroiderne, samt de saakaldte Weberske Knoglers Morfologi. Med

3 Tavler. Resumé en français. 1890 3. 80.

3. Warming, Eug. Lagoa Santa. Et Bidrag til den biologiske Plantegeografi. Med en Fortegnelse over Lagoa

Santas Hvirveldyr. Med 43 Illustrationer i Texten og I Tavle. Resumé en franfais. 1892 10. 85.

VIX, med 4 Tavler. 1890-94 • 13. 75.

1. Gram, J. P. Studier over nogle numeriske Funklioner. Resumé en français. 1890 1. 10.

2. Prjti, K. Methoder til korte Tiders, særlig Rotationsliders, Udmaaling. En experimental Undersøgelse.

Med 16 Fiçurer i Texten. 1890 1. 50.

3. Pelerseii, Emil. Om nogle GrnndstofTers allotrope Tilstandsformer. 1891 1. 60.

4. Warming, Eng. Familien Podoslemaccae. 4«^« Afhandling. Med c. 185 mest af Forfatteren tegnede Figurer

i 34 Grupper. Résumé et explication des figures en français. 1891 1. 50.

5. Christensen, Odin T. Rhodanchromammoniakforbindelser. (Bidrag til Chromammoniakforbindelsernes Kemi.

Hl.) 1891 I. 25.

6. Luiken. Chr. Spolia Atlantica. Scopelini Musei Zoologie! Universitatis Hauniensis. Bidrag til Kundskab

om det aabne Havs Laxesild eller Scopeliner. Med 3 Tavler. Résumé en français. 1892 3. 50.

7. Petersen, Emil. Om den elektrolytiske Dissocialionsvarme af nogle Syrer. 1892 1. 25.

8. Petersen, O.G. Bidrag til Scilamineernes Anatomi. Resumé en français. 1893 2. 75.

9. Lülken, Chr. Andet Tillæg til »Bidrag til Kundskab om Arteine af Slægten Cyamus Latr. eller Hval-

lusene«. Med 1 Tavle. Resumé en français. 1893 85.

10. Petersen, Eirdl. Reaktionshastigheden ved Methylælhcrdannclsen. 1894. 1. 50.

VIII, med 3 Tavler. 1895—98 12. 25.

1. IHeinert, F. Sideorganerne hos Scarabæ -Larverne. Les organes latéraux des larves des Scarabés. Med

3 Tavler. Résumé et explication des planches en français. 1895 3. 30.

2. Petersen, Emil. Daniptryksformindskelsen af Methylalkohol. 1896 1. t

3. Itiicliwaldt, F. En mathematisk Undersogelse af, hvorvidt Vædsker og deres Dampe kunne have en fælles

Tilstandsligning, baseret paa en kortfattet Fremstilling af Varmetheoriens Hovedsætninger. Résumé

en français. 1896 •. 2. 25.

4. Wariiihig, Eng. Halofyt-Studier. 1897 3. •

5. Johannsen, W. Studier over Planternes periodiske Livsyttringcr. 1. Om antagonistiske Virksomheder I

Stofskiftet, særlig under Modning og Hvile. 1897 3. 75.

6. Nielsen, N. Undersøgelser over reciproke Potenssummer og deres Anvendelse paa Rækker og Integraler. 1898. 1 60.

IX, med 17 Tavler. 1898 — 1901 17. •

1. Steeustrup, Japelus, og Lülken, Chr. Spolia Atlantica. Bidrag til Kundskab om Klump- eller Maanetlskcne

I Molidæ). Med 4 Tavler og en Del Xylografier og Fotogravurer. 1898 4. 75.

2. Warming, Eirg. Familien Podostemaceae. 5'« Afhandling. Med 42 Figurgrupper. Résumé en français. 1899 1., 60.

3. Mejer, Kirstine. Om overensstemmende Tilstande hos Stolferne. En med Videnskabernes Selskabs Guld-

medaille belønnet Prisafhandling. Med en Tavle. 1899 2. 60.

4. Jorgensen, S. M. Om Zeise's Platosemiæthylen- og Cossa's Platosemiamminsalte. Med 1 Tavle. 1900 . . »75.

5. Christensen, .4. Om Overbromider af Chinaalkaloider. 1900 ' 1. ■

6.- Sleenslrup, Japelus, Heteroteuthis Gray, med Bemærkninger om Rossia-Sepiola-Familien i Almindelighed.

Med en Tavle. 1900 . . 90.

7. Gram, Bille. Om Proteinkornene hos oliegivende Fra. Med 4 Tavler. Resumé en français. 1901 .... 2. 50.

8. Meinert, Fr. Vandkalvelarverne (Larvæ Dytiscidarum). Med 6 Tavler. Résumé en francals. 1901 . . S. 35.

X, med 4 Tavler. 1899—1902 10. 50.

1. Juel, C. Indledning i Læren om de grafiske Kurver. Résumé en français. 1899 2. 80.

2. Blllmann. Einar. Bidrag til de organiske Kvægsølvforbindelsers Kemi. 1901 1. 80.

3. Sauisee Lund og Uoslrnp, E. Marktidselen (Cirsmm arvensej. En Monograu. Med 4 Tavler. Resumé en

français. 1901 6. •

4. Cbrislenseii, A. Om Bromderivater af Chinaalkaloiderne og om de gennem disse dannede brintfattigere For-

bindelser. 1902 1. 40.

XI, med 10 Tavler og 1 Kort. 1901-03 15. 05.

1. Warming, Eng. Familien Podosteniaceæ. 6'^ Afhandling. Med 47 Figurgrupper. Résumé en français. 1901. 2. 15.

2. Ravn, J.P.J. Molluskenic i Danmarks Kridtailejringer. I. Lamellibranchiater. Med I Kort og 4 Tavler. 1902. 4. •

3. Winther, Chr. Rotationsdispersionen hos de spontant aktive Stolfer. 1902 2. •

4. Ravn, J. P. J. Molluskerne i Danmarks Kridtailejringer. 11. Scaphopoder, Gastropoder og Cephalopoder.

Med Ô Tavler. 1902 3. 40.

5. Winther, Chr. Polarimetriske Undersogelser II; Rotationsdispersionen i Opløsninger I. 60.

6. Ravn, J. P. J. Molluskcrne i Danmarks Kridtaflejringer. III. Stratigraflske Undersøgelser. Med 1 Tavle.

Résumé en francals. 1903 3. 85.

XII, med 3 Tavler og 1 Kort. 1902-04 10. 50.

1. Forch, Carl, Knudsen, Martin, und Serensen, S. P. L. Berichte über die Konstantenbestimmungen zur Auf-

stellung der hydrographischen Tabellen. Gesammelt von Martin Knudsen. 1902 4. 75.

2. Bergh, R. Gasteropoda opisthobraiichiata. With three plates and a map. (The Danish expedition to Slam

1899-1900, I.) 1902 3. 45.

3. Petersen, C. G. Job., Jensen, Soren, Johansen, A. C, og Levinsen, J. Chr. L. De danske Farvandes Plankton 1

Aarcnc 1898—1901. 1903 3. 25.

4. Christensen, A. Om Chinaalkaloidernes Dibromadditionsprodukter og om Forbindelser af Alkaloidernes

Chlorhydrater med højere Metalchloridcr. 1904 1. 35.

Botaniske Skrifter

udgivne af det Kgl. danske Videnskabernes Selskab

(Ildenfor Skrifternes 6te Række, se Omslagets S. 2— 3):

Kr. Ore

Bargrseii, F. An ecological and systematic account of the Gauleipas of the Danish West Indies. 1907 1. 75.

Chrlslensfii, Carl. Revision of the American species of Dryopteris of the gtoup of D. opposita. 1907 2. 85.

Drejer, S. Symbolæ caricologicæ, med 17 Tavler. 44. fol 6. "

Gotische, C. M. De mexikanske Levermosser, efter Prof. Liebmanns Samling, m. 20 Tavler. 67 9. 25.

Llebuianii, F. Mexicos Bregner. 49 4. •

Mexicos Halvgræs og Philetæria, m. 1 Tavle. 50 2. 30.

Mexicos og Central-Americas neldeagtige Planler. 5) 1. 15.

Petersen, O.G. Undersogelser over Træernes Aarringe. 1904 1. 60.

Schouw, J. Fr. De italienske Naaletræers geographiske og historiske Forhold, m. 1 Kort. 44 1. 25.

Ege- og Birkefamiliens geographiske og historiske Forhold i Italien, m. 1 Kort. 47 1. "

Om en Samling Blomstertegninger i den kgl. Kobberstiksamling. 49 » 65.

Wanning, Eng. Forgreningsforhold hos Fanerogamerne, betragtede med særligt Hensyn til Kløvning af Væxt-

punktet, m. 1 1 Tavler og mange Træsnit. Résumé en français. 72 6. 45.

Bidrag til Vadernes, Sandenes og Marskegs Naturhistorie. 1904. . .' I. 75.

Ørsted, A. S. Centralamericas Gesneraceer, m. 12 Tavler. 58 4. •

Om en særegen Udvikling hos visse Snyltesvampe, navnlig om den genetiske Forbindelse mellem

Sevenbommens Bævrerust og Pæretræets Gitterrust, m. 3 Tavler. 68 1. 25.

Bidrag til Kundskab om Egcfamilien i Forlid og Nutid, m. 8 Tavler og 1 Kort.- Résumé en français. 71. 6. •

l.^±K!ÂX UU.

Mémoires de l'Académie Royale des Sciences et des Lettres de Danemark, Copenhague,

T°' série, Section des Sciences, t. VIII, n» 2

UNDERSØGELSER

OVER

DE I FORSKELLIGE PLANTEDELE
INDEHOLDTE KALKSALTE

BILLE GRAM

D. Kgl. Danskf. Vidknsk. Ski.sk Skrifter, 7. R.kkke naturvidensk. og mathem. Afd. VIII. 2

' I 1 - • .s ,

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6^6 Række.
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Kr. Øre

I, med 42 Tavler, 1880-85 29. 50.

1. I'ryd, K. Undersøgelser over Lysets Brydning i Dampe og tilsvarende Vædsker. 1880 65.

2. Doas, J. E. V. Studier over Decapodernes Slægtskabsforhold. Med 7 Tavler, Résumé en français. ISSO 8. 50.

3. Steeiislriip, Jap. Sepiadarium og Idiosepius. to nye Slægter af Scpicrnes Familie. Med Ueniærkiiinger om

to beslægtede Former Scpioloidea D'Orb. og Spiruhi Lmk. Med 1 Tavle. Resumé en français. 1881 1. 35.

4. Colding, A. Nogle Undersøgelser over Stormen over Nord- og Mellcm-Huropa af 12"= — 14'''> Novb. 1872 og

over den derved fremkaldte Vandflod i Østersøen. Med 23 Planer og Kort. Resumé en français. 1881 10. »

5. Itoas, J. E. V. Om en fossil Zebra-Form fra Brasiliens Campos. Med et Tillæg om to Arter af Slægten

Ilippidion. Med 2 Tavler. 1881 2. •

6. Steen, A. Integration af en lineær Dill'erentialligning af anden Orden. 1882 50.

7. Krabbe, II. Nye Bidrag til Kundskab om Fuglenes Bændelorme. Med 2 Tavler. 1882 1. 35.

8. Uaiiliover, A. Den menneskelige Hjerneskals Bygning ved Anenceplialia og Misdannelsens Forhold til

Hjerneskallens Primordialbrusk. Med 2 Tavler. Extrait et e.\plication des planches en français. 1882 1. 60.

9. Den menneskelige Hjerneskals Bygning ved Cyclopia og Misdaniielsens Forhold til Hjerneskallens

Primordialbrusk. Med 3 Tavler. Extrait et explie. des planches en français. 1884 4. 35.

(0. Den menneskelige Hjerneskals Bygning ved Synolia og Misdannelsens Forhold til Hjerneskallens Pri-
mordialbrusk. Med 1 Tavle. Extrait et explie. des planches en français. 1884 1. 30.

11. Lphiiiann, A. Forsog paa en Forklaring af Synsvinklens Indflydelse paa Upfattelsen af Lys og Farve ved

direkte Syn. Med 1 Tavle. Résumé en fiançais 1885 I- 85.

II, med 20 Tavler, 1881-86 20. ■.

1. Warming, Eug. Familien Podostemaceae. 1^'« Afhandling. Med 6 Tavler. Resumé el explie. des planches

en français. 1881 3. 15.

2. Lorenz, L. Om Metallernes Ledningsevne for Varme og Elektricitet. 1881 . . . . ' 1. 30.

3. Warming, Eng. Familien Podostemaceae. 2''en Afliandling. Med 9 Tavler. Resume et explie. des planches

en français. 1882 5- 30.

4. Chrlslensen, Odin. Bidrag til Kundskab om Manganets Ilter. 1883 1. 10.

5. Lorenz, L. Farvcspredningens Theori. 1883 60.

(). Gram, J. P. Undersøgelser ang. Mængden af Primtal under en given Grænse. Résumé en français. 1884 4. »

7. Lorenz, L. Bestemmelse af Kviksølvsøjlers elektriske Ledningsmodstande i absolut elektromagnetisk

Maal. 1885 80.

8. Trausledl, Jl. P. A. Spolia Atlantica. Bidrag til Kundskab om Salperne. Med 2 Tavler. Explie. des

planches en français. 1885 3. »

9. Bohr, Chr, Om Iltens Afvigelser fra den Boyle-Mariotteske Lov ved lave Tryk. Med 1 Tavle. 1885 .. . 1. »

10. Undersøgelser over den af Blodfarvestofl'et optagne Iltmængde udførte ved Hjælp af et nyt Absorplio-

nictcr. Med 2 Tavler. 1S8G 1-70.

11. Thiele, T. N. Om Definitionerne for Tallet, Talarterne og de talligi^ende Bestemmelser. 1886 2. «

III, med 6 Tavler, 1885—86 16. •

1. Zenlhen, H. G. Keglesnitslæren i Oldtiden. 1885 tO. •

2. LeTlnscn, G. BI. R. Spolia Atlantica. Om nogle pelagiske Annulata. Med 1 Tavle. 1885 1. 10.

3. Rung, G. Selvrcgistrerende meteorologiske Instrumenter Med 1 Tavle. 1885 I. 10.

4. lUelnert, Fr. De encéphale Myggelarver. Med 4 dobb. Tavler. Résumé et explie. des planches en

français. 1886 6. 75.

IV, med 25 Tavler. 1886—88 21. 50.

1 Uoas, J.E. V. Spolia Atlantica. Bidrag til Pteropodernes Morfologi og Systematik samt til Kundskaben om

deres geografiske Udbredelse. Med S Tavler. Résumé en français. 1886 10. 50.

2. Lehmann, X. Om- Anvendelsen af Middelgradationernes Melode paa Lyssansen. Med 1 Tavle. 1886. ... 1. 50.

3. UannoTpr, A. Primordialbrusken og dens Forbening i Trnncus og Exlrcmiteler hos Mennesket før Fød-

selen. Extrait en français. 1887 1- 60.

4. Lütken, Chr. Tillæg til «Bidrag til Kundskab om Arterne af Slægten Cyamus Lalr. eller Hvallusene •.

Med 1 Tavle. Résumé en français. 1887 " 60.

5. Fortsatte Bidrag til Kundskab om de arktiske Dybhavs-Tudsefiske, særligt Slægten Himaiitolophus.

Mèd 1 Tavle. Résumé en français 1887 75.

6. Kritiske Studier over nogle Tandhvaler af Slægterne Tursiops , Urea og Lagenorhynchus. Med 2

Tavler. Résumé en francais 1887 4 75.

7. Koefoed, E. Studier i Platosoforbindelser. 1888 1. 30.

8. Warming, Eng. Familien Podostemaceae. 3'i'e Afhandling. Med 12 Tavler. Resumé el explie, des planches

en français. 1888 6- 45.

V, med 11 Tavler og 1 Kort. 1889—91 15. 50.

1. Luiken, Chr. Spolia Atlantica. Bidrag til Kundskab om de tre pelagiske Tandhval-Slægter Steno, Dcl-

pliinns og Prodelphinus. Med 1 Tavle og 1 Kort. Resumé en français. 1889 2. 75,

2. Valenliner, U. De endelige Transformations-Gruppers Theori. Résumé en français. 1889 5. 50.

3. Dansen, 11. J. Cirolanidæ et familiæ nonnullæ propinquæ Mnsei llauniensis. Et Bidrag til Kundskaben

om nogle Familier af isopode Krebsdyr, Med 10 Kobbertavlcr. Résumé en français. 1890 9. 50.

4. LoKnz, L. Analytiske Undersøgelser over Primtalmængderne. 1891 • 75.

(Fortsættes paa Omslagets S. 3.)

(Foi-ts. t'ra Umslageta S. 2.)

Kr. 0te

VI, med 4 Tavler. 1890—92 13. 75.

1. Loreni, L. Lysbevægelscn i og uden for en af plane Lysbølger belyst Kugle. 1890 2. •

2. Serensen, William. Om Forbeninger i Svanimeblæren, Pleura og Aortas Væg og Sammensmeltningen deraf

med Hvirvelsojlen særlig hos Siluroiderne, samt de saakaldte Weberske Knoglers Morfologi. Med

3 Tavler, liésumé en français. 1890 3. 80.

3. Warming, Eug. Lagoa Santa. Et Bidrag til den biologiske Plantegeografl. Med en Fortegnelse over Lagoa

Santas Hvirveldyr. Med 43 Illustrationer i Texten og 1 Tavle. Resumé en français. 1892 10. 85.

VII, med 4 Tavler. 1890-94 13. 75.

1. (iraiii, J. P. Studier over nogle numeriske Funktioner, liésumé en français. 1890 I. 10.

2. I'rjlz, K. Melhoder til korte Tiders, særlig Kotationstiders , Udmaaling. En experimental Undcrsegelsc.

Med 16 Fieurer i Texten. 1890 1. 50.

3. Petersen, Emil. Om nogle GrinulstolVers allolrope Tilstandsformer. 1891 t. 60.

4. Wanning, Eng. Familien Podosteniaceae. 4'^'= Afhandling. Med c. 185 mest af Forfatteren tegnede Figurer

i 34 Grupper. Resumé et explication des figures en français. 1891 1. 50.

5. Christensen, Odin T, Rhodanchromammoniakforbindelser. (Bidrag til Chromammoniakforbindelsernes Kemi.

III.) 1891 1. 25.

6. Lutken, Chr. Spolia Allantica. Scopelini Musei Zoologie! Universitatis Haunicnsis. Bidrag til Kundskab

om det aabne Havs Laxesild eller Scopeliner. Med 3 Tavler. Resumé en français. 1892 3. 50.

7. Petersen, Emil. Om den clektrulytiske Dissociationsvarme af nogle Syrer. 1892 t. 25.

8. Petersen, O.G. Bidrag til Scitamineenics Anatomi. Resumé en français. 1893 2. 75.

9. Lûlken, Chr. Andet Tillæg til «Bidrag til Kundskab om Arterne af Slægten Cyamus Latr. eller Hval-

lusene». Med 1 Tavle. Résumé en français. 1893 ■ 85.

10. Petersen, Emil. Reaktionshastigheden ved Methylætherdaunelscn. 1894 t. 50.

yill, med 3 Tavler. 189.5—98 J2. 25.

1. Meinert, F. Sidcorganerne hos Scarabæ -Larverne. Les organes latéraux des larves des Scarabés. Med

3 Tavler. Resumé et explication des planches en français. 1895 3. 30.

2. Petersen, Endl. Damptryksformindskelsen af Methylalkohol. 1896 1. •

3. Bnchvraldt, K. En malhematisk Undersogelse af, hvorvidt Vædsker og deres Dampe kunne have en fælles

Tilstandsligning, baseret paa en kortfattet Fremstilling af Varmetheoriens Hovedsætninger. Résumé

en français. 1896 2. 25.

4. Wanning, Eng. Halofyt-Studier. 1897 3. ■

à. Johannsen, W. Studier over Planternes periodiske Livsyttringer. I. Om antagonistiske Virksomheder i

Slofskiflet, særlig under Modning og Hvile. 1897 3. 75.

6. Nielsen, N. Undersogelser over reciproke Potenssummer og deres Anvendelse paa Rækker og Integraler. 1898. 1 60.

IX, med 17 Tavler. 1898 — 1901 17. •

1. Sleenslrup, Jajietus, og LQIken, Chr. Spolia Allantica. Bidrag til Kundskab om Klump- eller Maanellskcne

(Molidæ). Med 4 Tavler og en Del Xylografier og Fotogravurer. 1898 4. 75.

2. Warming, Eng. Familien Podosteniaceae. .S'e Afhandling. Med 42 Figurgrupper. Resumé en français. 1899 1. 60.

3. Meyer , Kirstine. Om overensstemmende Tilstande hos Stofferne. En med Videnskabernes Selskabs Guld-

medaille belonnet Prisafhandling. Med en Tavle. 1899 2. 60.

4. Jergensen, S. M. Om Zcise's Platosemiæthylen- og Cossa's Platosemiamminsalte. Mod 1 Tavle. 1900 . . »75.

5. Christensen, .4. Om Overbromider af Chinaalkaloidcr. 1900 1. •

6. Sleenslrup, Japetus. Heteroteuthis Gray, med Bemærkninger om Rossia-Sepiola-Familien i Almindelighed.

Med en Tavle. 1900 90.

7. Gram, Bille. Om Pjoteinkornene hos oliegivende Frø. Med 4 Tavler. Résumé en français. 1901 .... 2. 50.

8. Meinert, Fr. Vandkalvelarverne (Larvæ Dytiscidarmn). Med 6 Tavler. Resumé en français. 1901 . . 5. 35.

X, med 4 Tavler. 1899—1902 10. 50.

1. Juel, C. Indledning i Læren om de grafiske Kurver. Résumé en français. 1899 2. 80.

2. Blllmann. Einar. Bidrag til de organiske Kvægsølvforbindelsers Kemi. 1901 1. 80.

3. Samsec Lund og Rostrup, E. Marktidselen (Cifsium arvensej. En Monografi. Med 4 Tavler. Resumé en

français. 1901 (i. .

4. Christensen, \. Om Bromderivater af Chinaalkaloiderne og om de gennem disse dannede brintfattigere For-

bindelser. 1902 1. 40.

XI, med 10 Tavler og 1 Kort. 1901-03 15. 05.

1. Warming, Eng, Familien Podostemaceæ. 6'^ Afhandling. Med 47 Figurgruppcr. Résumé en français. 1901. 2. 15.

2. Havn, J.P.J. Molluskcrno i Danmarks Kridlaflcjringer. I. Lamellibranehiater. Med 1 Kort og 4 Tavler. 1902. 4. •

3. Winther, Chr. Rolalionsdispersionen lios de spontant aktive Stoller. 1902 2. •

4. Bavn, J. P. J. Molluskerne i Danmarks Kridtaficjringer. II. Scaphopoder, Gastropoder og Cephalopoder.

Med 5 Tavler. 1902 3. 40.

5. Winther, Chr. Polarimetriske Undersogelser II: Rotationsdispersionen i Opløsninger 1. 60.

6. Ravn, J. P. J. Molluskerne i Danmarks Kridtaflejringer. 111. Stratigrafiske Undcrsaaelser. Med 1 Tavle.

Resumé en français. 1903 ; 3. 85.

XII, med 3 Tavler og I Kort. 1902-04 10. 50.

1. Forch, Carl, Knudsen, Martin, und Sarensen, S. P. L. Berichte ûlier die Konslanlcnbeslimmungen zur Auf-

stellung der hydrographischen Tabellen. Gesammelt von Martin Knudsen. 1902 4. Ih.

2. Bergh, R. Gasteropoda opislhobrancliiala. Willi three plates and a map. (The Danish expedition to Slam

1899-1900, I.) 1902 3. 45.

3. Petersen, C. G. Joh., Jensen, Seren, Johansen, .4. C, og Levinsen, J. Chr. L. De danske Farvandes Plankton i

Aarenc 1898—1901. 1903 3. 25.

4. Christensen, 4. Om Ghinaalkaloiderncs Dibromadditionsprodukter og om Forbindelser af Alkaloidernes

Chiorhydrater med hujere Metalchlorider. 1904 1. 35.

Kr,

Oie

60.

65.

Fysiske og kemiske Skrifter

udgivne ai' det Kgl. danske Videnskabernes S(?lskab

(udenfor Skrifternes 6te Række, se Omslagets S. 2 — 3):

Uarfoed, C. T. Nogle Untlersogelscr over de isonieriske Tinsyrer. 67

Christiansen, C. Magnetiske Undersøgelser. 70

Colding, A. Undcrsogelser om de almindelige Naturkræfter og deres gjensidige Afliængiglied, samt: Om Mag-
netens Indvirkning paa bladt Jern Med 4 Tavler. 50

Undersøgelser over Vanddampene og deres bevægende Kraft i Dampmaskinen. 52

Om Lovene for Vandets Bevægelse i lukkede Ledninger. Med 3 Tavler. 57

De frie Vandspejlsformer i Ledninger med konstant VandføHng. Med 3 Tavler. 63

Om Udstrømning af Varme fra Ledninger for varmt Vand. 64

Om Strømningsforholdene I almindelige Ledninger og i Havet. Med 3 Tavler. Resumé en franc. 70 .

Om Lovene for Vandets Bevægelse i Jorden. Med 2 Tavler. Uésumé en franc. 72

Fremstilling af Resultaterne af nogle Undersøgelser over de ved Vindens Kraft fremkaldte Strømninger

i Havet. 76 ...

Jorgonsen, S. M. Nogle Analogier mellem Platin og Tin. 65 .

Om den saakaldte Herapathil og lignende Acidperjodider. 75

Lorenz, L. Experimentale og thcoretiske Undersøgelser over Legemernes Brydningsforhold. I. 69

do. II. 75

Norgaard. Bidrag til Oplysning om de kulsure Magnesiaforbindelser. Med 1 Tavle. 50

Scharling, E. A. Undersøgelser over Urin 43 ■

Undersøgelser over den Qvanlilet Kulstof, som i Form af Kulsyre forlader dot menneskelige Legeme i

Døgnels Løb. 43

Fortsalte Forsøg for at bestemme Kulsyren i Menneskets Udaanding. Med 1 Tavle. 45

Tredle Række af samme. 49

Bidrag til Oplysning om de i Handelen forekommende Balsamers kemiske Forhold. 55

Om Døglal og Æthal. 55

Thouisen, Jul, Bidrag til el thermochemisk System. 52

Den elektromotoriske Kraft udtrykt i Varmeeenheder. 58 • . .

Thermochemiske Undersøgelser over Affinitetsforholdcne mellem Syrer og Baser I vandig Opløsning 1.

Med 1 Tavle. Resumé en franc. 69

do. V— VIII. 70

do. IX. 70 '. .

do. X. 71

do. XI. Med en Tavle. 73 ;

do. XII. 73

Topsoe, n., * Clirlsdansen, C. Krystallogransk-optiske Undersøgelser, med særligt Hensyn til Isomorfe Stoffer. 73.

ïelse, W. C. Om Aecchlorplatin. 41

Om et Product af Ammonium-Sulphocyan-Hydrat ved Chlor. 43

Undersøgelser over Productcrne ved Tobakkens tørre Üestillation og over Tobaksrøgens chemiske Be-
skaffenhed. 43 . 50

Om Virkningen mellem xanthogensyret Kali og Jode. 45 . . • 50

Om Virkningen mellem Kall-Methyloxyd-Sulphocarbonat og Jode. 47 • 30

65.

15.

65.

85.

35.

. 75.

. to.

80.
50.

65.
80.
30.

50.

. 30.

75.

85.
. 35.

■

. 35.

85.

nénioires de l'Académie Royale des Sciences et des Lettres de Danemark, Copenhagne,

7"" série. Section des Sciences, t. VIII, n° 3.

FERSKVANDSAALENES (ANGUILLA)
UDBREDNING I VERDEN

I. DET ATLANTISKE OCEAN OG TILGRÆNSENDE

OMR A ADER

EN BIO-GEOGRAFISK STUDIE

JOH S. SCHMIDT

MED 1 KORT

D. Kgl. Danske Vidensk. Selsk. Skiuiteh, 7 Række, natuuvidensk. og mathem. Afd. \'111. 3

••-fc»Si«C^-

KØBENHAVN

HOVEDKOMMISSIONÆU : ANDR. FRED. HØST & SØN, KGL. llOF-BOGHA\bEI.

niANCO LUNOS BOGTRYKKERI
1909

Pris: 2 Kr. 25 Øre.

Det Kgl. Dauske Videnskabernes Selskabs Skrifter,

6te -Række.
Naturvidenskabelig og matliematisk Afdeling.

Kr. Ore

I, med 42 Tavler, I.SSO-85 29. 50.

1. l'rjiz, K. Uiidei'sogelscr over Lysets lirydniiig i Dampe us lilsvaiendc Vædsker. ISSO 65.

2. Ito'as, J. K. V. -Sludici' over l)ec:i|Ridcriies Slægtskabsfoiliold. Med 7 Tavler. Uésumé eii fiançais. 1.S80 8. 50.

3. Sleeiistrii|i, Ja|). Sepiadaiiuni og Idioseplus, to nye Slægter af Sepleriies Familie. Med lieinærkninger om

lo beslægtede Former Scpioloidca D'Orb. og Spirula Lmk. Med 1 Tavle. Resumé en français. 1S8I 1. 35.
■4. Colding, A. Nogle IJndcrsogelser over Stormen over Nord- og Mellcm-Furopa af 12"!— 14«''' Novb. 1872 og

over den derved fremkaldte Vandflod i Ostersocn. Med 23 Pianor og Kort. Résumé en français. IS8I 10. »
5. Boas, J. E, V. Om en fossil Zebra-Form fra Brasiliens Campos. Med et Tillæg om to Arier af Slægten

llippidion. Med 2 Tavler. tSSl 2. •

C. Steen, A. Integralion af en lineæ'r üilVcrcntialligning af anden Orden. ISS2 • 50.

7. Krabbe, II. Nye Didrag til Kundskab om F^uglcnes Bændelorme. Med 2 Tavler 1882 1. 35.

S. IlaiilloTer, A. Den menneskelige Hjerneskals Uygning ved Anenceplialia og Misdannelsens Forhold til

Hjerneskallens Primordialbrusk. Med 2 Tavler. E.\lrait et explication des planebes en français. 1882 1. 60.
9. Den menneskelige Hjerneskals Rygning ved Cyclopia og Misdannelsens Forhold til Hjerneskallens

Piiniordialbrusk. Med 3 Ta\lcr. Extrait et cxplic. des planches en français. 1884 4. 35.

10. Den menneskelige Hjerneskals Rygning ved Synolia og Misdannelsens Forhold til Hjerneskallens Pri-
mordialbrusk. Med 1 Tavle. Extrait et explie. des planches en français. 1884 1. 30.

li. lehmariu, A. Forsog paa en Forklari[ig af Synsvinklens Indflydelse paa Opfattelsen af Lys og Farve ved ^

direkte Syn. Med 1 Tavle. Resumé en fiançais 1 885 1. 85.

II, med 20 Tavler, 1881-86 20. ■■

1. Wariuliig, Eii^', Familien Podosicmaccae. 1^'« Afhandling. Med G Tavler. Resumé et explie. des planches

en français. I88I 3. 15.

2. Lorenz, L, Om Metallernes Ledningsevne for Varme og Elektricitet. 1881 I. 30.

3. Wanning, Eng. Familien Podostemaccae. 2''™ Afhandling. Med 9 Tavler, Resumé et explie. des planches

en français-. 1882 5. 30.

4 Christensen, Odin. Bidrag til Kundskab om Manganets Ilter 1883 1. 10.

5. Lorenz, L. Farvespredningens Tlieori. 1883 60.

6. Cram, J. I*. Undersøgelser ang. Mængden af Primtal under en given Grænse. P.ésumé en français. 1884 4. »

7. Lorenz, L. Bestemmelse af Kviksolvsøjlers elektriske Ledningsmodstandc i absolut elektromagnetisk

Maal. 1885 • 80.

8. Trausledt, W. I*. A. Spolia Allaiftica. Bidrag 111 Kundskab om Salperne. Med 2 Tavler. Explie. iles

planches en français. 1885 3. «

9. Bohr, Chr. Om Iltens Afvigelser fra den Boyle-Mariotteske Lov ved lave Tryk. Med 1 Tavle. 1885 ... I. »

10. Undersogelser over den af BlodfarvostolVet optagne Iltmængde udfurte ved Hjælp af et nyt Absorplio-

melcr. Med 2 Tavler. 18S6 t-. 70.

11. Thiele, T. N. "Om Definilioncrne for Tallet, Talarterne og de tallignenile Bestemmelser. 1886 2. •

III, med 6 Tavler, 1885—86 .' 16. •

1. Zeuthen, B.C. Keglesnitslæren i Oldtiden. 1885 : 10. •

2. Levinsen, (i. Dl. R. Spolia Atlantica. (Jm nogle pelagiske Annulata. Med 1 Tavle. 1885 1. 10.

3. IluMg, C. SelvregistreVende meteorologiske Instrumenter. Med 1 Tavle. 1885 I. 10.

4. Melncrl, Fr. De cucephale Myggclarvcr. Med 4 dobb Tavler. Resumé et cxplic. des planches en

français. 18S6 6. 75.

iv, med 25 Tavler. 1886-88 • 21. 50.

1. Boas, J. E, V. Spolia Atlanlica. Bidrag til Pleropodernes Morfologi og Systematik samt til Kundskaben om

deres geografiske Udbredelse. Med 8 Tavler. Resumé en français. 1886 10. 50.

2. Lehmann, A. Om Anvendelsen af Middelgradalionernes Metode paa Lyssanseii. Med 1 Tavle. 1S,S6 ... 1. 50.

3. Bannover, A. Primordialbruskeu og dens Forbening i Truncus og Extremiteter hos Mennesket for Fad-

selen. Extrait en français. 1887 1. 60.

4. Liitkcn, Chr. Tillæg til •Bidrag til Kundskab om Arierne af Slægten Cyamus Lalr. eller livallusene".

Med 1 Tavle. Résumé en français. 1887 " 60.

5. Fortsalle Bidrag til Kundskab om de arktiske Dybhavs-Tudsefiske, særligt Slægten Himantolophas.

Med 1 Tavle. Résumé en français. 1887 75.

6. Kritiske Studier over nogle Tandhvaler aC Slægterne Tiirsiops, Orca og La/jenorhynclms. Med 2

Tavler. Resumé en français 1887 4 75.

7. Koefoed, E. Slndier i Platosoforbindclser. 1888 1. 30.

8. Warming, Eng. Familien Podostemaceac. 3'''<' AfhandUng. Med 12 Tavler. Résumé et explie. des planches

en français. 1SS8 6. 45.

V, med 11 Tavler og 1 Kort. 1889—91 15. 50.

1. LQIken, Chr. Spolia Atlantica. Bidrag til Kundskab om de tre pelagiske Tandhval-Slægter Steno, Del-

phinus og Frodelphinus. Med 1 Tavle og 1 Kort. Resumé en français. 1889 2. 75,

2. Valenliner, B. De endelige Transformations-Gruppers Tlieori. Résumé en français. 1889 5. 50.

3. Bansen, B. J. Ciiolanidæ et familiæ nonnullæ propinquæ Mnsei Hauniensis. Et Bidrag til Kundskaben

om nogle Familier af isopode Krebsdyr, Med 10 -iiobberlavler. Résumé en français. 1890 9. 50.

4. Lorenz, L. Analytiske Undersogelser over Primtalmængderne. 1891 • 75.

(Fortsættes paa Omslagcta S. 3.]

10.

83.

13.

75.

10.

50.

60.

' (Foi'ta. tra Omslagets S. 2.)

Kr. Ore

VI, mod -4 Tavler. ISflO-92 13. 75.

1. Lorenz, L. Ljsbcvagclscn i og uden for eii af plane Lysbolgcr Lclysl Kugle. 1S90 2. •

2. Soreiiscn, ffllllaiii. Om Forbeninger i Svonimeblæren, l'leura og Aortas Væg og Sainmcnsmcllniiigen deraf

nicd Ilvirvclsiijlen særlig hos Siluroiderne, samt de saakaldte Weberskc Knoglers Morfologi. Med

3 Tavler. Resume en lYancais. 1S90 3. 80.

3. Warming, Eng, Lagoa Santa. Kt Bidrag til den biologisko Planlegcografi. Med en Fortegnelse over Lagoa

Sanlas Hvirveldyr. Med 'i3 Illustrationer i Te.\len og I Tavle. Résumé en français. 1892

VII, mod 4 Tavler. IS90-94 ■

1. Gram, J. I*. Studier over nogle nunieiiskc Funktioner. Résumé en français. 1890

2. Prytz, li. Melhoder til korte Tiders, særlig Rotationstiders, Udniaaling. En expérimental Undersøgelse.

Med 16 Fiïurer i Texten. IS90 . . -.

3. Pelerseii, Emil. Om nogle GrnndstolVeis allotrope Tilstandsformer. 1891

4. Warming, Eng. Familien Podosteniaccae. A'^<' Afhandling. Med c. 185 mest af Forfaderen tegnede Figurer

i 31 Grupper. Résumé et explieation des figures en français. 1891 1. 50.

5. Chrlstensrii, Odin T. Rliodanchromammoniakforbindelser. (Bidrag til Chromammoniakforbindelsernes Kemi.

111.1 1891 . , 1. 25.

6. I.ütkrii, Chr. Spolia Athiiitica. Scopulini Miisei Zoolngici Universitalis llauniensis. Bidrag til Kundskab

om det aabne Havs LaxesiUl eller Scopelioer. Med 3 Tavler. Résujno en français. 1892

7. Petersen, Emil. Om den cleklrnlyliske Dissociationsvarme af nogle Syrer. 1892

8. Petersen, 0. (i. Bidrag til Scilanilneerncs Anatomi. Résumé eti francals. 1893

9. Lutken, Chr. Andet Tillæg til «Bidrag til Kundskab om Arterne af Slægten Ci/amtts Latr. eller Hval-

lusene». Med 1 Tavle. Résumé en français. 1893

10. Petersen, Endl. Reaklionshastigheden ved Methylætherdannelsen.* 1894

VIII, med 3 Tavler. 189.5— 98

1. Meinert, F. Sideorganerne hos Scarabæ -Larverne. Les organes latéraux des larves des Scarabés. Med

3 Tavler. Résumé cl explication dos planches en français. 1895

2. Petersen, Emil. Damptryksforniriidskclsen af Methylalkohol. IS96 ; . . .

3 Uiichwaldl, F. En mathemalisk Undersogcise af, hvorvidt Vædsker og deres Dampe kunne have en fælles

Tilstandsligning, baseret pna en kortfattet Fremstilling af Varmetheoriens Hovedsætninger. Resumé
en français. ISUG

4. Warming, Eng. llalofyt Studier. IS97

5. Johannsen, W. Studier over Planternes periodiske Livsyttringer. 1. Om antagonistiske Virksomheder i

Stofskiftet, særlig under Modning og Hvile. 1897

6. Nielsen, N. Indersogelser over rcciproke Pulenssumnier og deres Anvendelse paa Rækker og Integraler. 1898.

IX, med 17 Tavler. IS98-1901

1. Stecnstrü|i, J.iiiclns, og Luiken, Chr. Spolia Atlantica. Bidrag til Kundskab om Klump- eller Maanefiskenc

( Mnlidæ). Med i Tavler og en Del Xylografier og Fotogravurer. 1898

2. Warming, Eng. Familien Podosteniaccae. .S'<= Afhandling. Med -42 Figurgrupper. Résumé en français. 1899

3. Mejer, Kirsline. Om overensstemmende Tiislande hos Stoirorne. En med Videnskabernes Selskabs Guld-

nicdaille belonnet Prisafharulling. Med en Tavle. 1899

■4. Jorgensen, S. M. Om Zciso's Plaln.^cmiæthylen- og Cossa's Platoscmiamniinsaltc. Med I Tavle. 1900 . .

5. Christensen, K. Om Overbromider af Chinaalkaloider. 1900

6. Steeiislrii|), Japehis. llelcrotculhis Gray, med Bemærkninger om Ro3sia-Scpiola-l''amilien i Almindelighed.

Med en Tiivle. 1900

7 Gram, Ullle. Om Proteinkornene hos oliegivende Fro. Med 4 Tavler. Résumé en français. 1901 ....
S. Meinert, Fr. Vandkalvelarvcrne (Liivoæ Dytiscidavum). Med G T'avlcr. Resumé en français. 1901 . .

X, med 4 Tavler. 1899—1902

1. Juel, C. Indlcdiiins i Læren om de grafiske Kurver. Résumé en français. 1899

2. Dillmann. Einar. Bidrag til de organiske Kvægsolvforbindelsers Kemi. 1901 .

3. Samso« Lund og Rostrup, E. Marktidseleii (Civainni tirvense). F^n Monografi. Med 4 Tavler. Résumé en

français. 1901

4. Christensen, \, Om Bromderivatcr af Chinaalkaloiderne og om de gennem disse dannede brintfatligere For-

bindelser. 1902

XI, med 10 Tavler og I Kort. 1901-03

1. Warming, Eng. Familien Podostcmaccæ. (i'^ Afhandling. Med 47 Figurgrupper. Résumé en français. 1901.

2. Ravn, J. P. J. Molluskcrne i Danmarks Kridtaflejringer. 1. Lamcllibranchiater. Med I Kort og 4 Tavler. 1902.

3. Winther, Chr. Rotationsdispersionen hos de spontant aktive SloU'er. 1902

4. Ravn, J.P.J. Molluskcrne i Danmarks Kridtaflcjringer. 11. Scaphopoder, Gaslropoder og Cephalopoder.

Med .5 Tavler. 1902

5. Winther, Cbr. Polarimctriskc Undcrsogclsor II: Rotationsdispersionen i Oplosninger

6. Ravn, J. P. J. Molluskerne i Danmarks Kridtaflcjringer. III. Stratigrafiske Undersogelser. Med 1 Tavle.

Resumé en français. 1903

XII, med 3 Tavler og 1 Kort. 1902-04

1. Korch, Carl, Knudsen, .flartiu, uml Sorenseu, S. P. L. Berichte über die Konstantenbestimmungen zur Auf-

stellung der hydrogiaphisclicn Tabellen. Gesammelt von Martin Knudsen. 1902

2. Uergh, R, Gasteropoda opislhobranchiala. With three plates and a map. (The Danish expedition to Siam

1899- lOfTO, 1.1 1902

3. Petersen, C.G.Job., Jensen, Seren, Johansen, .4. C, og Lcrlnsen, J. Chr. L. De danske Farvandes Plankton i

Aarene 1808—1901. 1903 ...

4 Christensen, .4. Oni Ghinaalkaloidcrnes Dibromaddilionsproduktcr og om Forbindelser af Alkaloidernes

Ghiorhydratcr med hojerc Mctalchloridcr. 1901

50.

25.

75.

■

85.

50.

12.

25.

30.

25.

•

75.

60.

17.

•

75.

60.

GO.

■

75.

•

90.

50.

35.

10.

50.

80.

40.

15.

9_
i.

05.
15.

60.

85.

10.

50,

75,

■45,

25,

35,

Zoologiske og anatomiske Skrifter

udgivne af Det Kgl. Danske Videnskabernes Selskab
(udenfor Skrifternes 6te Række, se Omslagets S. 2—3) :

, Kr. Øre

Itcrgh, R. Uidrag til cii Monogiaphi af Marscniaderne, m o Tavler. 53 ■'i. •

Aiialomiskc Bidrag til Kundskab om Æolidienio, m. 9 Tavler. 64 6. •

Cschrichl, D. P. Aiiatomisk-physiologiske Undersøgelser over Salperne, m. 6 Tavler. 41 2 35.

Undcrsogelser over Hvaldyrcne. Aflinndling 1 — 6, m. 16 Tavler. 44—48 13. «

Om Gangcsdelpliincn, m. 3 Tavler. 51 2. "

Eschrlchl A Reliiliardl. Om Nordhvaleii, m. 6 Tavler. 61 4. 65.

Ni Tavler til Opljsnijig om llvaldjrenes Bygning m. Forklaring. 69 2. 65

llaiiiio?er, A. Mikroskopiske Undersøgelser af Nervesystemet, m. 7 Tavler. 42 3. >

Om Bruskens ferste Dannelse og Udvikling, m. 2 Tavler. 64 » 90.

lagftagelscr over indkapslede Indvoldsorme hos Frøen, m. 2 Tavler. 65 1 ■•

Epithelioma cylindraceum, foliaceum og globosum, m. 2 Tavler. 65 • 9t>.

Om Bygningen og Udviklingen af Skjæl og Pigge hos Bruskfisk, m. 4 Tavler. 67 2. >

Øiels Nethinde, m. 6 Tavler. Explic. des planches en franc. 75 ». 10. "

Priniordialbrusken og dens Forbening i det menneskelige Kranium før Fødselen, m. 2 Tavler. Explic.

des planches en franc. 80 6. 35.

Krabbe, II. Hclminthologiske Undersøgelser i Danmark og paa Island, m. 7 Tavler. 65 2. 75.

Bidrag til Kundskab om Fuglenes Bændelorme, m. 10 Tavler. Resumé en franc. 69 4. 80.

Krejcr, II. .Sla-glen Hippolytes' nordiske Arter, m. 6 Tavler. 42 3. 36.

Lfilkeii, C. F. Addilamenta ad historian! Ophiuridarura. i— III, m. 7 Tavler. Resumé en franc. 58—69 ... 6. 85.
Bidrag til Kundskab om Arterne af Slægten CyamusLatr. eller Hvallusene, m. 4 Tavler. Résumé en franc. 73. 2. 15.

Velhas-Flodens Fiske, et Bidrag til Brasiliens Ichthyologi, m. 5 Tavler. Synopsis Latina. 75 6. 75.

Til Kundskab om to arktiske Slægter af Dybhavs -Tudsefiske: Himantolophus og Ceratias, m. 2 Tavler.

Resumé en franc 78 2 ■>

Spolia Atlantica. Bidrag til Kuniîskab om Formforandringer hos Fiske under deres Væxt og Udvikling,

m. 5 Tavler. Resumé en franc. 80 8. 20.

Meinert, Fr. Bidrag til de danske Myrers Naturhistorie, m. 3, Tavler. 60 2. 25.

I'roscli, V. Nogle nye Cephalopoder, m. 1 Tavle 47 "65.

Relnbardt, J. Beskrivelse af nogle nye Slangearter, ra. 3 Tavler. 43 1. 50.

Mephilis Westermanni, et nyt Stinkdyr fra Brasilien, m 1 Tavle. 67 > . »65.

Bidrag til Kundskab om Kjæmpedovendyret Lestodon armatus. m. 3 Tavler. 76 2. 20.

Kæmpedovendyr-Slæglen Goelodon, m. 5 Tavler. Résumé en franp. 78 6. »

Beskrivelse af Hovedskallen af et Kæmpedovendyr, Grypotherium darwinil, fra La Plata-Landenes plejsto-

cene Dannelser, m. 2 Tavler. Resumé en franc. 79 1. 75.

Reinhardt & Proscb. Om Sciadephorus Miilleri, ni. 6 Tavler. 46 2. 26.

Scl^edle, J. C. Gorotoca og Spirachtha, m. 2 Tavler. 64 1. 36.

Steensirup, Jap. Rhizochilus antipathum, m. 1 Tavle. 53 I. ■■

Hectocotyldannelsen hos Octopodslægtcrne Argonauta og Tremoetopus, m. 2 Tavler. 56 . I. 35.

Hemisepius, en ny Slægt af Sepia -Blæksprutternes Familie, med Bemærkninger om Sepia -Formerne i

Almindelighed, ra. 2 Tavler. Resumé en franc. 75 1. 25.

Spolia atlantica. Kolossale Blæksprutter fra det nordlige Atlanterhav, m. 4 Tavler. 98 2. 75.

Sleenstrup 4 Lûtkeu. Bidrag til Kundskab om det aabne Havs Snyltekrebs og Lernæcr, m 15 Tavler Cl . . . 6. »

Mémoires de l'Académie Royale des Sciences et des Lettres de Danemark, Copenhague,

7"^ série. Section des Sciences, t. VIII, n°4

THE HOT SPRINGS OF ICELAND

THORKELL THORKELSSON

WITH 13 PLATES

D. Km,. Danske Vcdensk. Si:i,sk. Skrifter, 7. Række, naturvidensk. og mathem. Afd. VIII. 4

-»-OÄfÖ^cV-

KØBENHAVN

HOVEDKOMMISSIONÆH : ANDR. FRED. HØST & SØN, KGL HOF-BOGHANDEL

BIANCO LUNOS BOGTRYKKERI

1910

Def Kgl. Danske Yidenskaberiies Selskabs Skrifter,

6*6 Række.
Natarridenskabelig og mathematisk Afdeling.

I, med 42 Tavler, 1880-85 29. 50.

1. PrjtJ, K. Undersegelser over Lysets Brydning i Dampe og tilsvarende Vædslcer. 1880 65.

2. Boas, J. E. V. Studier over Decapodernes Slægtskabsforliold. Med 7 Tavler. .Résumé en français. 1880 8. 50.

3. Steenstrup, Jap. Sepiadarium og Idiosepius, to nye Slægter af Sepiernes Familie. Med Bemærkninger om

to beslægtede Former Sepioloidea D'Orb. og Spirula Lmk. Med I Tavle. Résumé en français. 1881 I. 35.

4. Colding, A. Nogle Undersøgelser over Stormen over Nord- og Mellem-Europa af \2>^~li^<' Novb. 1872 og

over den derved fremkaldte Vandflod i Østersøen. Med 23 Planer og Kort. Résumé en francals. 1881 10. •

5. Boas, J. E. V. Om en fossil Zebra-Form fra Brasiliens Campos. Med et Tillæg om to Arter af Slægten

Hippldion. Med 2 Tavler. 1881 2. •

6. Steen, A. Integration af en lineær Differentialligning af anden Orden. 1882 50.

7. Krabbe, U. Nye Bidrag til Kundskab om Fuglenes Bændelorme. Med 2 Tavler. 1882 1. 35.

8. Daunover, A. Den menneskelige Hjerneskals Bygning ved,Anencephalia og Misdannelsens Forhold til

Hjerneskallens Primordialbrusk. Med 2 Tavler. Extrait el explication des planches en français. 1882 1. 60.

9. Den menneskelige Hjerneskals Bygning ved Cyclopia og Misdannelsens Forhold tiy Hjerneskallens

Primordialbrusk. Med 3 Tavler. Extrait et explic. des planches en français. 1884 4. 35.

10. Den menneskelige Hjerneskals Bygning ved Synolia og Misdannelsens Forhold til-Hjerneskallens Pri-
mordialbrusk. Med 1 Tavle. Extrait et explic. des planches en français. 1884 1. 30.

1 1 . Lehmann, A. Forsag paa en Forklaring af Synsvinklens Indflydelse paa Opfattelsen af Lys og Farve ved

direkte Syn. Med 1 Tavle. Resumé en français 1885 1. 85.

n, med 20 Tavler, 1881—86 20. »

1. Warming, Eug. Familien Podostemaceae. I»'« Afhandling. Med 6 Tavler. Resumé et explic. des planches

en français. 1881 3. 15.

2. Lorent, L. Om Metallernes Ledningsevne for Varme og Elektricitet. 1881 t. 30.

3. Warming, Eug. Familien Podostemaceae. 2deii Afhandling. Med 9 Tavler. Résumé et explic. des planches

en français. 1882 5. 30.

4. Christensen, Odiu. Bidrag til Kundskab om Manganets liter. 1883 ; 1. 10.

5. Lorent, L. Farvespredningens Theori. 1883 60.

6. Gram, J. P. Undersøgelser ang. Mængden af Primtal under en given Grænse. Résumé en français. 1884 4. •

7. Loreni, L. Bestemmelse af Kviksølvsøjlers elektriske Ledningsmodstande i absolut elektromagnetisk

Maal. 1885 80.

8. Transledt, M. P. A. Spolia Atlantica. Bidrag til Kundskab om Salperne. Med 2 Tavler. Explic. des

planches en français. 1885 3. •

9. Bohr, Chr. Om Iltens Afvigelser fra den Boyle-Mariotteske Lov ved lave Tryk. Med 1 Tavle. 1885 .. . I. •
/O. Undersøgelser over den af Blodfarvestolfet optagne Iltmængde udførte ved Hjælp af et nyt Absorptio-

meter. Med 2 Tavler. 1886 1. 70.

It. Thiele, T. N. Om Definitionerne for Tallet, Talarterne og de talijgnende Bestemmelser. 1886 2. •

III, med 6 Tavler, 1885—86 16. •

1. Zeuthen, B. 6. Keglesnitslæren 1 Oldtiden. 1885 10. ■

2. Levinsen, G. lU. R, Spolia Atlantica. Om nogle pelagiske Annulata. Med 1 Tavle. 1885 1. 10.

3. Rung, 0. Selvregiatrerende meteorologiske Instrumenter. Med 1 Tavle. 1885 1. 10.

4. Ittelnert, Fr. De eucepbale Myggelarver. Med 4 dobb. Tavler. Résumé et explic. des planches en

francals. 1886 6. 75.

iyr, med 25 Tavler. 1886-88 21. 50.

1. Boas, J. E. V. Spolia Atlantica. Bidrag til Pteropodernes Morfologi og Systematik samt til Kundskaben om

deres geografiske Udbredelse. Med 8 Tavler. Résumé en français. 1886 10. 50.

*. Lehmann, A. Om Anvendelsen af Middelgradationernes Metode paa Lyssansen. Med 1 Tavle. 1886. ... 1. 50.

3. Bannover, A. Primordialbrnsken og dens Forbening i Truncus og Extremiteter hos Mennesket før Fød-

selen. Extrait en français. 1887 1. 60.

4. Lutken, Chr. Tillæg til «Bidrag til Kundskab om Arterne af Slægten Cyamus Latr. eller Hvallusene-.

Med 1 Tavle. Résumé en français. 1887 ■ 60.

5. Fortsatte Bidrag til Kundskab om de arktiske Dybhavs-Tudsefiske, særligt Slægten Himantolophus.

Med 1 Tavle. Résumé en français. 1887 •_ 75.

6. Kritiske Studier over nogle Tandhvaler af Slægterne Titrsiops, Orca og Lagenorhynchus. Med 2

Tavler. Résumé en francais. 1887 4 75.

7. Koefoed, E. Studier i Platosoforbindelser. 1888 I. 30.

8. Warming, Eug. Familien Podostemaceae. 3'"^ Afhandling. Med 12 Tavler. Resumé et explic. des planches

en français. 1888 6. 45.

"V, med 11 Tavler og 1 Kort. 1889—91 15. 50.

1. Lutken, Chr. Spolia Atlantica. Bidrag til Kundskab om de tre pelagiske Tandhval-Slægter Steno, l)el-

phimis og Prodelphirms. Med 1 Tavle og 1 Kort. Résumé 'en français. 1889 2. 75.

2. Valentiner, H. De endelige Transformations-Gruppers Theori. Résumé en français. 1889 "... 5. 50

3. Hansen, H. J. Cirolanidæ et familiæ nonnullæ propinquæ Musei Hauniensis. Et Bidrag til Kundskaben

om nogle Familier af isopode Krebsdyr. Mjd 10 Kobbertavler. Résumé en français. 1890 9 50.

4. Loreni, L. Analytiske Undersøgelser over Primtalmængderne. 1891 • 75.

(Fortsættes paa Omslagets S. 3.)

(Forts, fra Omslagets 8. 2.)

Kr. ere

VI, med 4 Tavler. 1890—92 13. 75.

I. Loreoi, L. Lysbevægelsen i og uden for en af plane Lysbølger belyst Kugle. 1890. 2. •

i. SarenseD, Wllllain. Om Forbeninger 1 Svømmeblæren, Pleura og Aortas Væg og Sammensmeltningen deraf

med Hvirvelsøjlen særlig hos Siluroiderne, samt de saakaldte Weberslie Knoglers Morfologi. Med

3 Tavler. Resumé en français. 1890 3. 80.

3. WarmlDg, Eug. Lagoa Santa. Et Bidrag til den biologiske Plantegeograü. Med en Fortegnelse over Lagoa

Santas Hvirveldyr. Med 43 Illustrationer i Texten og 1 Tavle. Résumé en français. 1892 10. 85.

VII, med 4 Tavler. 1890-94 13, 75.

1. Gram, J. P. Studier over nogle numeriske Funktioner. Resumé en français. 1890 1. 10.

2. Prjti, K. Melhoder til korte Tiders, særlig Rotationstiders, Udmaaling. En experimental Undersøgelse.

Med 16 Figurer i Texten. 1890 1. 50.

3. Petersen, EmIL Om nogle Grnndstolfeis allotrope Tilstandsformer. 1891 1. 60.

4. Wanning, Eng. Familien Podoslemaceae. i^^ Afhandling. Med c. 185 mest af Forfatteren tegnede Figurer

i 34 Grupper. Resumé et explication des figures en français. 1891 1. 50.

5. Christensen, Odin T, Rhodanchromammoniakforbindelser. (Bidrag til Chromammoniakforbindelsernes Kemi.

III.) 1891 1. 25.

6. Lutken, Cbr. Spolia Atlantica. Scopeliiii Musei Zoologici Universitatis Hauniensis. Bidrag til Kundskab

om det aabne Havs Laxesild eller Scopeliner. Med 3 Tavler. Résumé en français. 1892 3. 50.

7. Petersen, Emil. Om den elektrolytiske Dissociationsvarme af nogle Syrer. 1892 1. 25.

8. Petersen, 0. G. Bidrag til Scilamineernes Anatomi. Résumé en français. 1893 2. 75.

9. Lutken, Chr. Andet Tillæg til »Bidrag til Kundskab om Arierne af Slægten Cyamus Latr. eller Hval-

lusene». Med 1 Tavle. Resumé en français. 1893 85.

10. Petersen, Emil. Reaktionshastigheden ved Methylætherdannelsen. 1894 1. 50.

VIII, med 3 Tavler. 1895—98 12. 25.

1. Meinert, F. Sideorganerne hos Scarabæ -Larverne. Les organes latéraux des larves des Scarabés. Med

3 Tavler. Resumé et explication des planches en francals. 1895 3. 30.

2. Petersen, Emil. Damptryksformindskelsen af Methylalkohol. 1896 |. •

3 Buchwaldt, F. En mathematisk Undersøgelse af, hvorvidt Vædsker og deres Dampe kunne have en fælles

' - Tilstandsligning, baseret paa en kortfattet Fremstilling af Varmetheoriens Hovedsætninger. Résumé

en français. 1896 2. 25.

4. Warming, Eng. Halofyt-Studier. 1897 3. .

â. Johannsen, W, Studier over Planternes periodiske Livsyttringer. I. Om antagonistiske Virksomheder 1

Stofskiftet, særlig under Modning og Hvile. 1897 3. 75.

6. Nielsen, N. Undersøgelser over reciproke Potenssummer og deres Anvendelse paa Rækker og Integraler. 1898. 1 60.

IX, med 17 Tavler. 1898-1901 17. .

1. Steenstrup, Japetus, og Lutken, Chr. Spolia Atlantica. Bidrag til Kundskab om Klump- eller MaaneQskene

(Molidæ). Med 4 Tavler og en Del Xylografier og Fotogravurer. 1898 4. 75.

2. Wanning, Eug. Familien Podostemaceae. ,5'^ Afhandling. Med 42 Figurgrupper. Résumé en français. 1899 1. 60.

3. Meyer, RIrstlne. Om overensstemmende Tilstande hos Stofferne. En med Videnskabernes Selskabs Guld-

medaille belønnet Prisafhandling. Med en Tavle. 1899 2. 60.

4. Jsrgensen, S, M. Om Zeise's Platosemiælhylen- og Cossa's Platosemiamminsalte. Med I Tavle. 1900 . . »75.

5. Christensen, A. Om Overbromider af Chinaalkaloider. 1900 1. •

6. Steensirup, Japetus. Heteroteuthis Gray, med Bemærkninger om Rossia-Sepiola-Familien i Almindelighed.

Med en Tavle. 1900 . 90.

Gram, Bille. Om Proleinkornene hos oliegivende Frø. Med 4 Tavler. Resumé en français. 1901 .... 2. 50.

8. Meinert, Fr. Vandkalvelarverne (Lareæ Dytiscidarum). Med 6 Tavler. Résumé en français. 1901 . . 5. 35.

X, med 4 Tavler. 1899—1902 ., 10. 50.

1. Juel, C. Indledning i Læren om de grafiske Kurver. Résumé en français. 1899 2. 80.

2. Billmann, Einar, Bidrag til de organiske Kvægsølvforbindelsers Kemi. 1901 1. 80.

3. Samsee Lund og Rostrup, E. Marktidselen (Cirsium arvensej. En Monografi. Med 4 Tavler. Résumé en

français. 1901 6. •

4. Christensen, A. Om Bromderivater af Chinaalkaloiderne og om de gennem disse dannede brintfattigere For-

bindelser 1902 1. 40.

XI, med 10 Tavler og 1 Kort. 1901-03 15. 05.

1. Wanuing, Eug. Familien Podostemaceæ. 6'« Afhandling. Med 47 Figurgrupper. Résumé en français. 1901. 2. 15.

2. Ravn, J.P.J. MoUuskerne i Danmarks Kridtafiejringer. I. Lamellibranchiater. Med 1 Kort og 4 Tavler. 1902. 4. •

3. Winther, Chr. Rotationsdispersionen hos de spontant aktive Stoffer. 1902 2. •

4. Ravn, J. P. J. Molluskerne i Danmarks Kridlaflejringer. II. Scaphopoder, Gastropoder og Cephalopoder.

Med .0 Tavler. 1902 ,_, 3. 40.

5. Winther, Chr. Pohirimelriske Undersøgelser 11: Rotatlonsdispersionen i Opløsninger . 1. 60.

6. Ravn, J. P. J. Molluskerne i Danmarks Kridtafiejringer. 111. StratlgraQske Undersøgelser. Med 1 Tavle.

Résumé en français. 1903 3. 85.

XII, med 3 Tavler og 1 Kort. 1902-04 10. 50.

1. Forth, Carl, Knudsen, Martin, und Sørensen, S. P. L. Berichte über die Konstantenbestimmungen zur Auf-

stellung der hydrographisciien Tabellen. Gesammelt von Mariin Knudsen. 1902 4. 75.

2. Bergh, R. Gasteropoda opisthobranchiata. With three plates and a map. (The Danish expedition to Slam

1899-1900, I.) 1902 3. 45.

a. Petersen, C. 6. Jsh., Jensen, Seren, Johansen, A. C, og Levinsen. J. Chr. L. De danske Farvandes Planklon i

Aarene 1898—1901. 1903 3. 25.

4. Christensen, A. Om Chinaalkaloiderues Dibromaddilionsprodukter og om Forbindelser af Alkaloidernes

Chlorhydrater med højere Metalchlorider. 1904 1. 35.

Geologiske og mineralogiske Skrifter

udgivne af det Kgl. danske Videnskabernes Selskab

(udenfor Skrifternes 6te Række, se Omslagets S. 2 — 3) :

Er. ere
Culdlng, A. Om Lovene for Vandets Bevægelse i Jorden, m. 2 Tavler. 1872 1. 65.

Forchhaiuriier, fi. Om Midlerne til at bestemme Mængden af de organiske Bestanddele i Vandet etc., m.

1 Kort. 1850 ." I. •

Johnstrup, F. Om Fugtighedens Bevægelse i den naturlige Jordliund, m. 3 Tavler. 1866 i 1. 15.

Pingel, C. Om den af Porphyrgange gjennembrudle r«de Sandsteen i det sydlige Grønland. 1843 • 50

Ring, C. C. Om Fugtighedens Bevægelse i Jordbunden, m. 1 Kort. 1868 1. •

TËKMSR

W 9A?/^ Mc ccmpliimnh

Mémoires de l'Académie Royale des Sciences et des Lettres de Danemark, Copenhague,

7"»^ série, Section des Sciences, t. VIJI, n" h.

ICHTHYOTOMICAL CONTRIBUTIONS

II. THE STRUCTURE OF THE AULOSTOMIDÆ,
SYNGNATHIDÆ AND SOLENOSTOMIDÆ

HECTOR F. E. JUNGERSEN

D. Kgl. Danske Vidensk. Sei.sk. Skrifteiî, 7. Række, natuiividensk. og mathem. Ai-d. VIII.

•■-ca^tJRc»—

KØBENHAVN

HOVEDKOMMISSIONÆH: ANDR. FRED. HØST & SØN, KOL. HOF-BOGHAN'DEL

BIANCO I.UNOS BOGTKYKKEKI

191Ü

-A

Det Kgl. Danske Videiiskaberues Selskabs Skrifter,

6te Række.
Naturvidenskabelig 02 matliematisk Afdeling.

° ° ° Kr. ere

I, med 42 Tavler, 1880-85 29. 50.

1. I'rjtz, K. Undeisogelser over Lysets Brydning" i Dampe os tilsvarende Vædsker. 1880 65.

2. Boas, J. E. V. Studier over Decapodernes Slifigtskalfsforhold. Med 7 Tavler, llésumé en français. ISSO 8. 50.

3. Sleenstrup, Jap. Sepiadarium ug Idiosepius. to nye Slægter af Sepiernes Familie Med Bemærkninger om

lo beslægtede Former Sepioloidea D'Orlj. og Spirula Lmk. Med 1 Tavle, llésume en franeais. 1881 1. 35.
i. Colding, A. Nogle lindersogelser over Stormen over Nord- og Mellem-Europa af 12ie_i4de Novb. 1872 og

over den derved fremkaldte Vandflod i Østersoen. Med 23 Planer og Kort. Bésumé en français. 1881 10. »

5. Doas, J. E. V. Om en fossil Zebra-Form fra Brasiliens Campos. Med et Tillæg om lo Arter af Slægten

Hippidion. Med 2 Tavler. 1881 • ■ 2. •

6. Steen. .4. Integralion af en lineær DilVerentialligning af anden Orden. 1882 ". . . • 50.

7. Erabbe, U. Nye Bidrag til Kundskab om Fuglenes Bændelorme. Med 2 Tavler. 1882 1. 35.

S. Uaiino»er, A. Den menneskelige Hjerneskals Bygning ved Anenceplialia og Misdannelsens Forhold til

Hjerneskallens Primordialbrusk. Med 2 Tavler. E.vtrait et explication des planches en français. 1882 1. 60.

9. Den menneskelige Hjerneskals Bygning ved Cyclopia og Misdannelsens Forhold lil Hjerneskallens

Primordialbrusk. Med 3 Tavler. Extrait et explic. des planches en français. 1884 4. 35.

10. Den menneskelige Hjerneskals Bygning ved Synotia og Misdannelsens Forhold til Hjerneskallens Pri-
mordialbrusk. Med I Tavle. Extrait et explie. des planches en français 1884 , 1. 30.

11. Lefaniaiiii, A. Forsøg paa en Forklaring af Synsvinklens Indllydclse paa (Jpfallelsen af Lys og Farve ved

direkte Syn. Med I Tavle. Resumé en français 1885 1. 85.

II, med 20 Tavler, 1881-86 20. ■■

1. Warming, Elis. Familien Podostemaceae. iste Afhandling. Med 6 Tavler. Uésumé et explie. des planches

en français. 1881 • • 3. 15.

2. Lorenz, L. Om Metallernes Ledningsevne for Vamie og Elektricitet. 1881 -. . . 1. 30.

3. Warming, Eng. Familien Podostemaceae. 2''«" Afhandling. Med 9 Tavler. Késumé et explic. des planches

en français. 1882 5. 30.

4. Cbrislensrn, (Idlii. Bidrag tit Kundskab om Manganets Ilter. 1883 1. 10.

5. Lorenz, L. Farvespredningens Theori. 1883 60.

6. Gram, J. P. llnderseigelser ang. Mængden af Primtal under en given Grænse. Resumé en français. 1884 4. »

7. Lorenz, L. Besteiiimelse af Kviksolvsojlers elektriske Ledningsmodstande i absolut elektromagnetisk

Maal. 1885 80.

5. Traiistcdt, UK P. A. Spolia Atlantica. Bidrag til Kundskab om Salperne. Med 2 Tavler. Explic. des

planches en français. 1885 3. »

9. Bobr, Chr, Om Iltens Afvigelser fra den Boyle-Mariotteske Lov ved lave Tryk. Med 1 Tavle. 1885 ... 1. »

10. Undersogelser over den af Blodfarvestoll'et optagne Iltmængde udfarte ved Hjælp af et nyt Absoiptio-

meler. Med 2 Tavler. 1886 t. 70.

11. Tblele, T. M. Om Definitionerne for Tallet, Talaitcrne og de tallignende Bestemmelser. 1886 2. •

III, med G Tavler, 1885—86 16. •

1. ZeiilbcM, B.C. Kcglesnitslæren i Oldtiden. 1885 10. •

2. Levinsen, (i. M. II. Spolia Atlantica. Om nogle pelagiske Annulata. Med 1 Tavle. 1885 1. 10.

3. Uung, 0. Selvregislrerende meteorologiske Instrumenter Med 1 Tavle. 1885 1. 10.

4. lUeliierl, Fr. De encéphale Myggelarver. Med 4 dobb. Tavler. Résumé et explic des planches eu

français. 1886 6. 75.

IV, med 25 Tavler. 1886-88 21. 50.

1. Boas, J. E. V. Spolia Atlaiitica. Bidrag til Pteropodernes Morfologi og Systematik samt til Kundskaben om

deres geografiske Udbredelse. Med 8 Tavler. Résumé en français. 1886 10. 50.

2. Lebiuaiin, A. Oin Anvendelsen af Middelgradationernes Metode paa Lyssanseu. Med 1 Tavle. 188U ... 1. 50.

3. Uaiinover, A. Primordialbrusken og dens Forbening i Truneus og Extremileler hos Mennesket fnr Fod-

scleu. Extrait en français. 1887 1. 60.

4. Lutken, Chr. Tillæg til •Bidrag til Kundskab om Arterne af Slægten Cyarnus Latr. eller Hvalluseiie-.

Med I Tavle. Resumé en français. 1887 60.

5. Fortsatte Bidrag til Kundskab om de arktiske Dybhavs-Tudsefiske, særligt Slægten Riiuantolophm.

Med 1 Tavle. Resumé en français. 1887 75.

6. Kritiske Studier over nogle Tandhvaler af Slægterne Tarsiops , Orca og Ldf/enorhyiichus. Med 2

Tavler. Résumé en francais 1887 4 75.

7. Koefoed, E. Studier i Platosoforbindelser. 1888 1. 30.

8. Warming, Eug. Familien Podostemaceae. 3'i'^ Aflrøndling. Med 12 Tavler. Résumé et explie des planches

en français. 1S88 6. 45.

V, med 11 Tavler og I Kort. 1889—91 15. 50.

1. Lutken, Cbr. Spolia Atlantica. Bidrag til Kundskab "m de tre pelagiske Tandlival-Slægter iSleiio, Del-

plthiKs og l'ro(U'l))/iiiiiis. Med I Tavle og 1 Kort Résumé en français. 1889 2. 75.

2. Valeiithier, B. Üe endelige Transfurmations-Crnppers Theori. Résumé en français. 1889 5. 50.

3. Bauseii, B. J. Cirolanidæ et familiæ nonuullæ propinquæ Musei Haunieusis. Et Bidrag til Kundskaben

om nogle Familier af isopode Krebsdyr Med 10 Kobberlavler. Resumé en français. 1890 9 50.

4. Lorenz, L. Analytiske Undcrsegelser over Primtalmængderne. 1891 V • 76.

(E'orUættes paa Omslagets S. 3.)

(Furts. fra Omslagets S. i.)

Kr. øre

VI, med 4 Tavler. 1890-92 13. 75.

I. Lorenz, L. Lysbevægelson i og uden for en af plane Lysbalger belyst Kugle. 1890 2. •

.', Sereriseii, William. Om Fiiibeiiinger i Svommeblæicn, Pleura og Aortas Væg og Sanunensmeltningen deraf
med livlrvel-sejlen .særlig hos Siluroiderne, samt de saakaldte Weberske Knoglers Morfologi. Med

3 Tavler. Résninc en français. 1890 ■. ^ 3. go.

3 Warming, Eug. Lagoa Santa. Et Bidrag til den biologiske Plantegeografi. Med en Fortegnelse over Lagoa

Santas Hvirveldyr. Med 13 Illustrationer i Texten og 1 Tavle. Resumé en français. »892 10. 85.

VII, med i Tavler. 1890-94 13. 75.

1. Oram, J. P. Studier over nogle numeriske Funktioner. liésumé en français. 1890 1. 10.

2. Prjtz, li. Mellioder til korte Tiders, særlig Uolationstiders, Udmaaling. En experimental Undersøgelse.

.Med 1Ü Ficurer i Texten. IS90 ). jO.

3. Petersen, Endl. Om nogle Griindstolfeis allolrope Tilstandsformer. 1891 1. 60.

4. Warming, Eug. Familien Podostemaeeae. ¥^ Afhandling. Med c. 185 mest af Forfatteren tegnede Figurer

i 34 Grupper. Resumé et explication des ligures en français. 1891 I. 60.

5. Clirlstenseii, Odin T. Rhodancliromammoniakforblndelser. (Bidrag til Chromamnioniakforblndelsernes Kemi.

111.) I S!) I 1. 25.

6. Lfilken, Chr. Spolia Atlantica. Scopelini Musei Zoologie! Universitatis Hauniensis. Bidrag til Kundskab

om del aabne Havs Laxesild eller Seopeliiicr. Med 3 Tavler. Resumé en français. 1892 3. 50.

7. PeliTseu, Emil. Om den cleklroh tiske Dissociationsvarme af nogle Syrer. 1892 1. 25.

8. Petersen, O.G. Bidrag til Scitamineernes Anatomi. Résumé en français. 1893 2. 7S.

9. Luiken. Chr. Andet fillæg til -Bidrag til Kundskab om Arterne af Slæglen Cyamus Latr. eller Hval-

lusene«. Med 1 Tavle. Resume en français. 1893 85.

10. Petersen, Emil. Reaktionshastigheden ved Methylætlierdannelsen. 1894 1. 50.

VIII, med 3 Tavler. 1895 — 98 12. 25.

1. Meinert, F. Sideorganerne hos Searabæ -Larverne. Les organes latéraux des larves des Scarabês. Med

3 Tavler. R('sumé et explication des planches en français. 1895 3. 30.

2. Petersen, Endl. Uamptrvksforniiiidskelsen af Methylalkohol. 1896 1. .

3. Buchwald!, F. En nialhcniatisk llndersogelse af, hvorvidt Vædsker og deres Dampe kunne have en fælles

Tilstandsligning, liaseret paa en kortfattet Fremstilling af Varmetheoricns Hovedsætninger. Résumé

en français. 1896 2. 25.

4. Warming, Eug. Halofyt-Studier. 1897 3" . '

5. Johannsen, W. Studier over Planternes periodiske Livsyttringer. I. Om antagonistiske Virksomheder i

Stofskiftet, særlig under Modning og Hvile. 1897 3. 75.

6. Melsen, N. L'ndersßgelser over reciproke Potenssummer og deres Anvendelse paa Rækker og Inlegraler. 1898. 1 60.

IX, med 17 Tavler. 1898 — 1901 . . 17. ,

1. Slee«stru|), Japetus, og Linken, Chr. Spolia Allanliea. Bidrag til Kundskab om Klump- eller Maaneliskcne

(Molidæ). Med 4 Tavler og en Del Xylografier og Fotogravurer. 1898 4. 75.

2. Warming, Eug. Familien Podostemaeeae. .i'e Afhandling Med 12 Figurgrupper. Résumé en français. 1899 1. 60.

3. Mejer, Rirsline. Om overensstemmende Tilstande Ilos Sloll'eriie. En med Videnskabernes Selskabs Guld-

medaille belonnet Prisafhandliiig. Med en Tavle. 18!)!) 2. 60.

4. Jørgensen, S. M. Om Zeise's Platosemiæthylen- og Gossas Platosemiamminsalte. Med I Tavle. 1900 . . »75.

5. Christensen, \. Om Overbromider af Ghinaalkaloider. 1900 1. •

6. Steenstrup, Japetus. Ileteroteuthis irray, med Bemærkninger om Rossia-Sepiola- Familien i Almindelighed.

Med en Tavle. 1900 90.

Gram, Hille. Om Proleinkoriiene hos oliegivende Fru. Med 4 Tavler. Resumé en français. 1901 .... 2. 50.

8. .kleiner!, Fr. Vandkalvelarverne (Larvæ Dytiscidanim). Med 6 Tavler. Résumé en français. 1901 . . 5. 35.

X, med 4 Tavler. 1899—1902 10. 50.

1. Juel, C. Indledning i Læren om de grafiske Kurver. Résumé en français. 1899 2. 80.

2. Bllhnann. Einar. liiilrai; til de organiske Kvægsølvforbindelsers Kemi. 1901 I. 80.

3. Samsoe Lund og Iluslrup, E. Marktid«elcn (Cirsiitiii arivtise). En Monograu. Med 4 Tavler. Resumé en

français. r.)OI 6. •

4. Christensen, A. Om Bromderivaler af Chinaalkaloidcrne og om de gennem disse dannede brintfattigere For-

bindelser. I!)02 ....... 1. 40.

XI, med 10 Tavler og 1 Kort. 1901 - 03 15. 05.

1. Warming, Eug. Familien Podosleinaceæ. 6'e Afhandling. Med 47 Figurgrupper. Résume en français. 1901. 2. 15.

2. Ravn, J.P.J. Mollnskernc. i Danmarks Kridlallejringer. 1. Lamellibranchiater. Med 1 Kort og 4 Tavler. 1902. 4. •

3. Winther, Chr. Rotationsdispersionen hos de spontant aktive Stolfer. 1902 2. •

4. Ravn, J. P. J. Mollnskerne i Danmarks Kridlallejringer. 11. Scapliopoder, Gastropoder og Gephalopoder.

Med â Tavler. 1902 3. 40.

5. Whilher, Chr. Polarimelriske IJndersogelser 11: Rotationsdispersionen i Opløsninger 1. 60.

6. Ravn, J. P. J. Mollnskerne i Danmarks Kridtafiejringer. III. Slraligrafiske Undersoüelser. Med 1 Tavle

Résumé en français. I!)03 3, 35.

XII, med 3 Tavler og 1 Kort. 1902 — 04 10. 50.

1. Forch, Carl, Knudsen, .llartin. und Serensen, S. P. L. Berichle über die Konstantenbestimmungen zur Auf-

slellung der hydrograpbisclien fabelien. Gesammelt von Martin Kniidacn. 1902 4. 75.

2. Bergh, II. Gasteropoda opistiioliranclùala. With three plates and a map. (The Danish expedition to Slam

1899-1900, I.) I!H)2 3. 45.

3. Petersen, C. G. Joh., Jensen, Seren, Johansen, .4. C, og Levinsen. J. Chr. L. De danske Farvandes Plankton i

Aarene 1898 — 1901, I9Ü3 3. 25.

4. ChrUleuseu, .4. Om Chinaalkaloidernes Dibromadditlonsprodukter og om Forbindelser af. Alkaloidernes

Chlorhydrater med højere Melalchlorider. 1904 ' 1. 35.

Zoologiske Skrifter

udgivne af Det Kgl. Danske Videnskabernes Selskab

(udenfor Skrifternes 6te Række, se Omslagets S. 2 — 3) :

Kr. Øre

Itergh, n. Bidiag""lil cii Monograph! af Marseniaderiie, m. 5 Tavler. 53 . . 4 •

— — Anatomiske Bidrag til Kundskab om Æolidierne, m. 9 Tavler. 64 5. »

Eschrirbt, D. F. Anatomisk-physiologiske Undcrsogelser over Salperne, m. 6 Tavler. 41 2. 35.

Undersøgelser over Hvaldyrene. Afhandling 1—6. m. 16 Tavler. 44—48 13. •

Om Gangesdelphinen, m. 3 Tavler. 51 2. »

Esckrlcht & Reinhardt. Um Nordhvalen, m. 6 Tavler. 61 4. 65.

Ni Tavler til Oplysning om Hvaldyrenes Bygning m. Forklaring. 69 2. 65.

Hannover, A. Iagttagelser over indkapslede Indvoldsorme hos Frøen, m. 2 Tavler. 65 I. »

Om Bygningen og Udviklingen af Skjæl og Pigge hos Bruskfisk, m. 4 Tavler. 67 2. »

Jungersen, Dcctor F. E. Ichthyotomical contribnlions I. The structure of the genera Amphisiie and Centriseus,

wilh 2 plates. 1908 2. 95.

Krabbe, U. Helminthologiske Undersøgelser i Danmark og paa Island, m. 7 Tavler. 65 2. 75.

Bidrag til Kundskab om Fuglenes Bændelorme, m. 10 Tavler. Résumé en franc. 69 4 80.

Krejer, H, Slægten Hippolytes' nordiske Arter, m. 6 Tavler. 42 3. 35.

Lutken, C. F, Additamenta ad historiam Ophiuridarum. 1 — III, m. 7 Tavler. Resumé en franc. 58—69 ... 6. 85.
Bidrag til Kundskab om Arterne af Slægten Cyamus Latr. eller Hvallusene, m. 4 Tavler. Résumé en franc 73. 2. 15.

Velhas-Floilens Fiske, et Bidrag til Brasiliens Ichthyologi, m. 5 Tavler. Synopsis Latina. 75 6. 75.

Til Kundskab om to arktiske Slægter af Dybhavs -Tudsefiske: Himantolophus og Ceratias, m. 2 Tavler.

Résumé en franc. 78 2. «

Spolia Allantica. Bidrag til Kundskab om Formforandringer hos Fiske under deres Væxt og Udvikling,

m. 5 Tavler. Résumé en franc. 80 • 8. 20.

Ljnge, Berm. Marine Lamellibranchiala, with 5 plates and a map. 1909 S. 60.

nielnert, Fr. Bidrag til de danske Myrers Naturhistorie, m. 3 Tavler. 60 ~. 2. 25.

Mortensen, Tb. Ecliinoidea 1,, with 7 piates and a map. 1904 6. 85.

Proscb, V. Nogle nye Cephalopodcr, m. 1 Tavle. 47 » 65.

Rathbun, Mary J. Urachyura, with 2 jrlates and a map. 1910 3. 20.

Reinhardt, J. Beskrivelse af nogle nye Slangearter, m. 3 Tavler. 43 I. 50.

Mephitis Westormanni, et nyt Stinkdyr fra Brasilien, m 1 Tavle. 57 ••65.

Bidrag til Kundskab om Kjæmpedovendyret Lestodon armatus. m. 3 Tavler. 75 2. 20.

Kæmpedovendyr-Slægten Coelodon, m. 5 Tavler. Resumé en franc. 78 ■>. »

Beskrivelse af Hovedskallen af et Kæmpedovendyr, Grypotherium darwinii, fra La Plata-Landenes plejslo-

cene Dannelser, m 2 Tavler. Résumé en franc. 79 I. 75.

Reinhardt & Proscb. Om Scidaephorus Mulleri, m. 5 4'avler. 46 2. 25.

Schjedte, J. C. Corotoca og Spirachtha, ni. 2 Tavler. 54 I. 35.

Schmidt, Jobs. Ferskvandsaalencs (anguilla) Udbredning i Verden I., med 1 Kort. 1909 2. 25

Slaiiiin, R. B. Om Musklernes Befæstelse til det ydre Skelet hos Leddyrene, med 2 Tavler. Résumé en franc. 1904. 1. 95.

Steenstrup, Jap. Rhizochilus antipathum, m. 1 Tavle. 53 I. »

Hectocotyldannelsen hos Octopodslægterne Argonauta og Tremoctopus, m. 2 Tavler. 56 1. 35.

Heniisepius, en ny Slægt af Sepia -Blæksprutternes Familie, med Bemærkninger om Sepia -Formerne i

Almindelighed, m 2 Tavler. Résumé en franc. 75 .' 1. 25

Spolia atlantiea. Kolossale Blæksprutter fra det nordlige Atlanterhav, m. 4 Tavler. 98 2. 75.

Steenstrup & Luiken. Bidrag til Kundskab om det aabne Havs Snyltekrebs og Lernæer, m. 15 Tavler. 61. . . 5. •

With, C. J. Cbelonelhi, with 4 plates and a map 1906 7. 95.

Al'»^ MXI

Mémoires de l'Académie Royale des Sciences et des Lettres de Danemark, Copenhague,

7""^ série. Section des Sciences, f. VIII. n° 6

^ OM

SIMPLE CYKLISKE KURVER

C. JUEL

D. Kc.L. Da.vske Vidensk. Sei.sk Skiuftek, 7. H.'ekke, naturvidensk. og matkm. Afd. VIII. H

■•<>)«f''TBC<>">-

KØBENHAVX
HOVEDKOMMISSIONÆK: ANDR. FRED. HØST & SØN, KGL. HOK-BOGHANUEL

lilANCO I.UNOS BOGTHYKKEKl

Hill

Pris: 65 Øre.

Kr.

ere

29.

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Det Kgl. Danske Videnskabernes Selskabs Sl^rifter,

6te Række.
Naturvidenskabelig og mathematisk Afdeliug.

I, med 42 Tavler, 1880—83

( Prjlz, K. Undersogelser over Lysels Uiydiiirig i Dampe os lilsvarciide Vædsker. ISSO

2. Hoiis, J. E. V. Studier over Dccapodenies Slacfilskahslorlidld. Mcil 7 Tavler, Késiiiiu' eii rraiioals. I.SSO

3. Streiistnip, Jap. Sepiadarium o^ Idiosepius. lu nye Sla';;lei al Scpinnes Kamilie MimI lliMiiærkiiiimiM om

to liesia'sicde Former Sepioloidca U'Orli. og Spinila Link. Med I Tavle licsiime eii Iraiirais l.ssi
i Colding, \. Nogle Undersogelser over .Sloi men over iNurd- og Jlelkin-Kuropa al I."« \\''^' So\\> IS7.' og

over den derved fremkaldte Vaiidllod i Oslersoen. Med .'3 Planer og Kort lirsnmé en fraiirais 1881
;>. Boas, J. K. V. Om en fossil Zebra-Form fra Brasiliens Campos. Med et Tillæg om to Arter af .Slægten

llippidion. Med 2 Tavler. 1881

(>. Sleeii. A. Integration af en lineær Dillerentialligning af anden Orden. 1882

7. Rrakbe, II. Nye Bidrag til Kundskab om Fuglenes Bændelorine. Med 2 Tavler. 1882

S. UaniioTer, \. Den menneskelige Hjerneskals Bygning ved Ancin-eplialia og Misdannelsens Forlmld til

Hjerneskallens Primordialbrusk Med 2 Taxier. L.vtrait el evpliration des planches en IVanrais. 1882
9. Den menneskelige Hjerneskals Bygning ved Cyrlopia og Misdannelsens Fmliold til Hjerneskallens

Primordialbrusk. Med 3 Tavler Kxlrait et explic. des planches en frain'ais 1884

10. Den menneskelige Hjerneskals Bygning ved Svnolia og Misdannelsens Forhold til Hjerneskallens Pri-
mordialbrusk. Med 1 Tavle. IC.vlrait et explic. des idanclies en français 1 88 i

11. Lebmaiiii, A. Forsøg paa en Forklaring af Synsvinklens Indllydelse paa t)pfattelsen af Lys og Farve ved

diiekte Syn. Med 1 Tavle. Uésumé en français I88ä

II, med 20 Tavler, 1881—86

1. Wanning, Eng. Familien Poduslemaceae. 1*"^ Afhandling. Med 6 Tavler. Résumé el explic." des planches

en français. 1881

2. Lorenz, L. Om Metallernes Ledningsevne for Varme og Elektricitet 1881 .

3. Warming, Eng. F'amilien Podostemaceae. 2''>-'" Afhandling. Med y Tavler. Uésumé et explic. des planches

en français. 1882

4. Chrlslensen, Odin. Bidrag til Kundskab om Manganets Ilter 1883

5. Lorenz, L. I'"arvcspredningens Theori 1883

6. Crani, J. I'. Undersogelser aiig. Mængden af Primtal uiidei en given Grænse Itésnnié en français. 1881

7. Lorenz, L. Bestemmelse af Kviksulvsujlers elektriske Ledningsiuodstaiide i absolut elektrumagnetisk

Maal. 1885 8i'.

8. Trausledl, Jl. I*. A. Spolia Atlantica. Bidrag til Kundskab om Salperne. Med 2 Ta\ler. Explic des

planches en français. 1886 3.

9. Bohr, Chr. Om Iltens .\fvigelser fra den Boyle-Mariotleske Lov ved lave Tryk. Med I Tavle. IS.^.') . I

10. Undersogelser over den af Blodfarvestoll'et optagne lllniængde udforle ved Hjælp af et nyl Absorplio-

nieter. Med 2 Tavler. 188(5 1 7m.

11. Thiele, T. N. Om Delinitionerne for Tallet, Talarterne og de talligiiende Bestemmelser I88G . . . .'. ■

III, med 6 Tavler, 1885—86 '■

1. Zeuihen, U. C. Keglesnilslæren i Oldtiden. 1885

2. Levlnsrn, Ci. M. K. Spolia Atlantica. Om nogle pelagiske Annulata Med 1 Tavle 1886

3. Unng, (i. Selvregistrerende meteorologiske Instrumenter .Med I Tavle. 188.)

4. Meinert, Fr. De encéphale Myggelarver. Med 4 dobb. Tavler. Ilésume et explic des planches en

français. 1886

IV, med 25 Tavler. 1886—88

1. Boas, J. E. V. Spolia Atlantica. Bidrag til Plernpodernes Morfologi og Systematik saml til Kundskaben om

deres geogialiske Udbredelse. Med 8 Tavler. Itésnnié en français. 1886

2. Lehmann, A. Om Anvendelsen af Middelgradationeriies Metode paa Lyssaiisen Med I Tavle 1886

3. Hannover, A. Primordialbi usken og deus Forbening i Truncus og Exiremiteter hos .Mennesket fur Fod-

selen. Extrait en français. 1887

4. Lutken, Chr. Tillæg til "Bidrag til Kundskab om Arierne af Slægten Cj/aiiiux Latr. eller Hvallusene-.

Med I Tavle, liésumé en français. 1887

5. F'ortsatte Bidrag til Kundskab om de arktiske Dybhavs-Tudsefiske, særligt Slægten Hiiiiniilohijiliiin.

Med I Tavle. Besumé en français 1887

6. Kritiske Studier over nogle Tandhvaler af Slægterne Tiirsiups, (Jrca og Liifienurhynchua. Med 2

Tavler, liésumé en français 1887

7. Koefoed, E. Studier i Platosoforbindelser 1888

8. Wurming, Eng. Familien Podostemaceae. 3'''' Afhandling. Med IJ Tavler. Résumé et explic des planches

en français. 1888

V, med II Tavler og 1 Kort. 1889—91

1. LDIken, Chr. Spolia Atlantica Bidiag til Kundskab om de tre pelasiske Tandhval-Slægter äteiu), Del-

jJiiiiKs oï I'luilcljiliiiiiis. Med I Tavle og I Kort Ilésume en français. 1889. ....

2. Valrnthier. U. De endelige Traiisfnrmalions-driippers Theori llesunie en français 188!) . .

3. Hansen, U. J. Cirolaniilæ el lamiliæ nonnullæ piopiiri|iiæ Miisei llauiiiensis. Et Bidrag lil Kundskaben

om nogle Familier af isupode Krebsdyr Med 10 Kobbertavler. Resume en français. 1890

4. Lorenz, L. Analytiske Undersogelser over Primlalmængderne. 1891

(Fortsættes paa Omslagets S. 3.)

•

10.

76.

60.

•

fiO.

■

7.).

76.

46.

50.

•t

7.-..

60.

50.

•

76.

(Fi)rts. lia Oui6lai$L'ts S. 2. J

Kr. Ore

VI, mod 4 Tavler. 1890—92 13. 7.5.

1. Lorrnz, L. Lyslicvægelsen i og uden for en af plane Lysbulger belyst Kugle. 1890 2. •

,'. Sarenseii, Wllllain. (ini Forbeninger i Svmnmeblæren, ['leura og Aortas Væg og Samincusincltningen deraf
nicd llvirvclsojlen særlig lios Siluroiderne, samt de saakaldte Weberskc Knoglers Morfologi. Med

3 Tavler. Resumé en fraiifais. 1S90 3. 80.

3. Warming, Eng. Lagoa Santa. Et Bidrag til den biologiske Plantegeografi. Med en Fortegnelse over Lagoa

Sanlas Hvirveldyr. Med 43 Illustrationer i Te.\len og 1 Tavle. Résumé en français. 1892 10. 86.

"VII, med 4 Tavler. 1890-94 13. 75.

1. Grain, J. I'. Studier over nogle numeriske Funktioner. Résumé en français. 1890 I. 10.

2 l'rjii, K. Melhoder til korte Tiders, særlig Rotationstiders, lidmaaling. En experimental ündersogelse.

Med 16 Fiaurer i Texten. 1S90 1. 60.

3. IVtfrsen, Eiiill. Om nogle lirundstolVeis ätiotrope Tilstandsformer. 1891 I. 60.

4. Wanning, Eng. Familien Podostemaceae. 4'i« Afliandling. Med c. 186 mest af Forfatteren tegnede Figurer

i 34 Grupper. Résumé et explication des figures en français. 1891 1. 50.

6. Chrlslenseii, Odin T. Rliodanchromammoniakforbindelser. (Bidrag til Chromammoniakforbindelsernes Kemi.

III I 1891 I. 26.

6. hulken. Clir. Spolia Allantica. Scopelini Musei Zoologici Universitatis Hauniensis. Bidrag til Kundskab

om det aabne Havs Laxesild eller Scopeliner Med 3 Tavler. Resumé en français. 1892 3 60.

7. Peti-rsen, Emil. Um den elektrolytiske Dissociationsvarme af nogle Syrer. 1892 1. 26

8. Petersen, 0. C. Bidrag til Scilamineernes Anatomi. Resumé en français. 1893 2. 76.

9. LQtkeu. Chr. Andet tillæg til -Bidrag til Kundskab om Arterne af Slægten Cyamiis Latr. eller Hval-

lusene«. Med 1 Tavle. Resumé en français 1893 86.

10. Petersen, Emil. Reaktionshastiglieilcn ved Methylætlierdannelsen. 1894 1. 50.

VIII, med 3 Tavler. 1895-98 12. 26.

1. lUeluerl, F. Sideorgaiierne hos Scarabæ - Larverne. Les organes latéraux des larves des Scarabés. Med

3 Tavler. Resumé et explication des planches en français. 1895 3. 30.

2. l'elerseii, Emil. Dampliyksforniindskclsen af Methylalkohol. 1896 1. •

3 liiichwaldl, F. En ninlliematisk Ündersogelse af. hvorvidt Vædsker og deres Dampe kunne have en fælles

Tilstandsligning, baseret paa en kortfattet Fremstilling af Varmetheorlens Hovedsætninger. Résumé

en français. 1896 2. 25.

4. Warming, Eng. Halofyt Studier. 1897 3. •

5. Johannsen, W, Studier over Planternes 'periodiske Livsyttringer. 1. Om antagoiListiske Virksomheder i

Stofskiftet, særlig under Modning og Hvile. 1897 3. 75.

6. Nielsen, M. I iidersagclser over reciproke Potenssummer og deres Anvendelse paa Rækker og Integraler. 189S. 1 60.

IX, med 17 Tavler. IS98-I901 17. •

1. Steenstru|i, Japetns, og Lfilken, Chr. Spulia Atlantica. Bidrag til Kundskab om Klump- eller MaancDskcne

(Mdiidæ). Med 4 Tavler og en Del Xylografier og Fotogravurer. IS9S 4. 75.

2. Warming, Eng. Familien Podostemaceae. o'" Åfliaiiilling Med 4.' Figurgrupper. Résumé en français. 1899 1. 60.

3. .Hejer, Kirstine. Om oveiensstenimende Tilstande hos .Stollerne. En med Videnskabernes. Selskabs Guld-

medaille beloniiet Prisafluuidliiig Med en Tavle. 1899 . 2. 60.

4. Jergensen, S. .11. Oin Zeise's Plalo.semiæthylen- og Cossa's Platosemiamminsalte. Med I Tavle. 1900 . . -76.

5. Christensen, .4. Om Ovcrbromider af Chinaalkaloider. 1900 1. •

6. Steenstrn|i, Japelus. Hetemteuthis 'xrai/, med Bemærkninger om Rossia-Sepiola Familien i Almindelighed.

Med en Tavle. 1900 ■ 90.

Gram, Uille. Om Pmleinkornene hos oliegivende Fre. Med 4 Tavler. Resumé en français. 1901 ... 2. 60.

8. Meinert, Fr. Vandkalvelarverne i Larcæ Dytiscidarum). Med 6 Tavler. Resumé en français. 1901 . . 5. 35.

X, med 4 Tavler, 1899—1902 10. 50.

1. Jnel, C. Indlediiins i Læren om de grafiske Kurver. Résumé en français. 1899 2. 80.

2. Bilhnann. Einar. Itidraa til de organiske Kvæ^'salvforbindelsers Kemi. 1901 1. 80.

3. Saiusse Lund og llcistru|), E. Marklid-^elen (Cirxium uroaiae). En Monografi. Med 4 Tavler. Résumé eii

français. 191)1 6. •

4. Christensen, 4. Om Bromderivater af Chinaalkaloiderne og om de gennem disse dannede brinlfattigere For-

bindelser. 1902 1. 40.

XI, med 10 Tavler og 1 Kort. 1901-03 15. 05.

1. Whinning, Eng. Familien Podostemaceæ. (i'e Afhandling. Meil 47 Fiaurgrupper. Resumé en français. 1901. 2. 15.

2. Rain, J. P. .1. Molluskeinn i Danmarks Kridlallejringer. I Lamellibranchiater. Med 1 Kort og 4 Tavler. 1902. 4. •

3. Winther, Chr. Rotationsdispersionen hos de spontant aktive Stoller. 1902 2. •

4. llavn, J. P. J. Molluskerne 1 Danmarks Kridtaflejringer. 11. Scaphopoder, Gastropoder og Cephalopoder.

Med 5 Tavler. 1902 " 3. 40.

5. Winther, Chr. Pohirimetriske llndersogelser II: Rotationsdispersionen i Oplosninger 1. 60.

6. Ravn, J. P. J. Molhiskerne i Danmarks Kridtailejringer. III. Stratigraflske Undersogelser. Med I Tavle.

Résumé en français. 1903 3. 85.

XII, med 3 Tavler og 1 Kort. 1902-04 10. 50.

1. Korch, Carl, Knudsen, .llartin. nml Sorensen, S. P. L. Berichte über die Konstanlenbesllmmungen zur Auf-

slellium der hydmgiaphischcn Tabellen. Gesammelt von Martin Kniidsoi. 1902 4. 75.

2. Uergh, II. Gasteropoda opisthobranchiala. Witli three plates and a map. (The Danish expedition to Slam

1899 - 1900, I.) 1902 3. 45.

3. Petersen, C. G. .loh., Jensen, Suren, .Johansen, .4. C, og Levinsen. J. Chr. L. De danske Farvandes Plankton t

Aarenc 189,8—1901 1903 3. 25.

4. Christensen, .4. Om Gliinaalkaloidernes Dlbromadditinnsprodiikter og om Forbindelser af Alkaloidernes

Chlorhydraler med hujere Metalchlorider. 1904 1. 35.

Mathematiske og astronomiske Skrifter

iidgivue af Det Kgl. Danske Videnskabernes Selskab

(udenfor Skrifternes 6. Række, se Omslagets S. 2 — 3):

Kr. Ore

Hansen, €. liechcnlies sur les singularités de certaines series spéciales sur leur cercle de converaence lüOS 1. 20.

d V

Hansen, P. C. V En Sætning om den Eulerske Falitor svarende til Dill'erenlialligningen M ' N^'= O 73. • 65.

Hansteen, 0. Den magnetiske Inclinations Forandring i den nordlige Icmpcrerte Zone I, med et Kort. 55. 2. •

— II. 57 1. 15.

Hertîspriing, S. Reduktion af Maskelynes Iagttagelser af smaa Stjerner, 65 1. 15.

Jnel, €. Uni ikke-analyliske Kurver. 1906 I 95.

Nielsen, N. Kecherches sur une classe de fonctions méroniorphes 1904 1 45.

Recherches sur les fonctions spliériques. 1906 1. 75.

Recherches sur quelques généralisations d'une idenlilé intégrale d'Ahel. 1907 1. 20.

Ramus, C. fjiulersøgelse af Resten i Lagranges Række, samt: Om en Egenskab ved de lineære Dillerenlial-

Ligninger med 2 Variable. 42 • 65.

Om nogle Curvers Rectification ved elliptiske Functioner. 45 • 60.

Om Ellipsoiders Tiltrækning og om de ellipsoidiske Ligevægtsfiguver af flydende Masser. 45 1. 65.

Sfhjellerup, H. C. K. C. Tycho Rrahes Original-Observationer benyttede til Uanebestemmelse af Cometen 15S0. 54. 1. •

Stec«, A. Hovedsætninger om de overelliptiske Funktioner og: Om dobbelte bestemte Integraler. 49 » 65.

Om Integrationen af DilTerenlialligninger. Résumé en français. 68 " 35.

Om Ændringen af Integraler af irrationale DilTerentialer. 69 • 40.

Læren om homogene tunge Vædskers Tryk paa plane Arealer, m. 1 Tavle. Resumé en français 72 . • 75.

Om Muligheden af et Par lineære Dilferentialligningers Integration ved endelige explicite Funktioner. 75. • 75.

Thiele, T. N. Om Anvendelse af mindste Kvadraters Methode i nogle 'TilfæWe, hvor en Komplikation af visse

Slags uensartede tilfældige Fejlkilder giver Fejlene en «systematisk» Karakter. 80 ■ 85.

Zeuthen, H. G. Almindelige Egenskaber ved Systemer af plane Kurver, m. 5 Tavler. Resumé en français. 73 . 3. 60.

dWrresl, H. L, Siderum nebulosorum observationes Havnienses. 67 12. »

Hansen & Olufsen, Tables du soleil. 53 4. •

Supplément aux tables du soleil. 57 35

Jûrgensen, Chr. Sur le mouvement du pendule. 53 65.

Schjellrrup, H. C. F. C. Stjernefortegnelse, indeholdende 10,000 Positioner og teleskopiske Flxstjerner Imellem

— 15 og + 15 Graders Deklination. Med 1 Tavle. 64 7. •

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